Feasibility and Usefulness of Repetitions-In-Reserve Scales for Selecting Exercise Intensity: A Scoping Review

The intensity of resistance training (RT) exercise is an important consideration for determining relevant health and performance-related outcomes. Yet, current objective exercise intensity measures present concerns in terms of viability or cost. In response to these concerns, repetition-in-reserve (RIR) scales may represent an adequate method of measuring and regulating intensity. However, no recent review has focused on how RIR scales have been used for this purpose in prior research. We prepared the present scoping review to analyze the feasibility and usefulness of RIR scales in selecting RT intensity. We conducted a systematic search in PubMed, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, and ClinicalTrials.gov databases (last search date April 2023) for experimental and non-experimental studies that utilized an RIR scale to measure proximity to failure in RT activities with apparently healthy individuals of any age. We qualitatively analyzed 31 studies (N = 855 mostly male adult participants) published between 2012-2023. RIR scales appeared to be contextually feasible and useful in prescribing and adjusting RT intensity. The most common trend in this research was to prescribe a target RIR and adjust the exercise load for a desired proximity to muscle failure. Additionally, when measuring proximity to failure as an outcome of interest, the literature suggests that the RIR prediction should be made close to task failure to increase its accuracy. Future research should further explore the impact of sex, RT experience, exercise selection, and muscle conditioning on the overall RIR approach.

Validation of the Portuguese Version of the Perceived Physical Literacy Instrument

BACKGROUND

The Perceived Physical Literacy Instrument (PPLI) has been the most adopted physical literacy instrument designed for adults to date, having been already translated to 5 languages. Still, despite its popularity, there is limited evidence of its psychometric properties. The aim of this study was to translate and adapt cross-culturally the PPLI to the Portuguese language and to analyze the psychometric properties of the Portuguese version in a sample of Portuguese-speaking adults.

METHODS

The study sample was composed of 434 participants (70% females) with a median age of 25 (18-39) years. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess psychometric properties of the scale. In addition, instrument assumptions between sexes through invariance testing were examined. Finally, concurrent validity, test-retest reliability, and test-retest agreement analyses were performed to gather additional evidence.

RESULTS

The results of the present study generally supported the measurement model. The 9-item, 3-factor model presented a good fit to the data and adequate construct validity (χ2 = 82.859 [24], P < .001, comparative-fit index = .948, Tucker-Lewis index = .922, standardized root mean square residual = .049, root mean square error of approximation = .075). In addition, the scale presented concurrent validity. Some issues arose with measurement invariance and overtime consistency.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the lack of validated instruments, we suggest a fair use of Portuguese version of PPLI to access physical literacy in adults. This study contributes to the validation of the PPLI by providing evidence of its psychometric properties in the Portuguese-speaking adult population and facilitates comparative analysis with previous and future studies utilizing the PPLI instrument.

Analysis of the Effect of Different Physical Exercise Protocols on Depression in Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

CONTEXT

Physical exercise (PE) is an effective treatment for depression, alone or as an adjunct.

OBJECTIVE

There is a lack of indicators regarding the frequency, intensity, duration, and type of physical exercise (PE). This study aims to synthesize and analyze the dose-effect of different PE protocols in adult subjects in the treatment of depression, based on the analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

DATA SOURCES

The search was conducted using Web of Science, PubMed, and Cochrane Library electronic databases.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies with an exercise-based intervention published by December 31, 2021 were identified. RCTs and meta-analyses involving adults with depression were also included; 10 studies were selected, including a total of 956 subjects.

STUDY DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 1.

RESULTS

Effect sizes were summarized using standardized mean differences (95% confidence interval) by effected randomized models. The results reinforce that exercise appears to be beneficial in improving depression among adults aged 18 to 65 years. Interventions lasting above 150 minutes per week of moderate intensity and group interventions seem to have a more significant effect on reducing depression. Studies have revealed that aerobic exercise, compared with resistance or flexibility, has a more positive effect on depression.

CONCLUSION

PE can be a way to reduce depression and can be used as a possible adjunctive tool for pharmacological and/or alternative treatments. Considering the findings of this study, it is important that health professionals (eg, exercise physiologists, physicians, nurses, psychologists) promote the practice of PE as a complementary alternative and act early to prevent the worsening of depression.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020188909.

From data to action: a scoping review of wearable technologies and biomechanical assessments informing injury prevention strategies in sport

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this scoping review was to evaluate the current use of technologies in sports settings for training adaptation and injury prevention. The review aimed to map the existing literature, identify key concepts and themes, and highlight gaps in research, thus offering guidance for future studies.

METHODS

This study followed the guidelines of the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews and a search in four major databases was conducted.

RESULTS

A total of 21 studies were included. The findings highlighted the widespread use of various technologies, including wearable devices and force plates, to monitor athletes' performance and inform evidence-based decision-making in training and injury prevention. Variables such as Player Load, changes of direction, and acute chronic workload ratio were identified as key metrics in injury prediction.

CONCLUSIONS

This review uncovers a dynamic field of research in athlete injury prevention, emphasizing the extensive use of varied technologies. A key finding is the pivotal role of Player Load data, which offers nuanced insights for customizing training loads according to sport-specific demands, player positions, and the physical requirements of various activities. Additionally, the review sheds light on the utility of tools like force plates in assessing fatigue, aiding recovery, and steering injury rehabilitation, particularly in sports prone to knee and ankle injuries. These insights not only enhance our understanding of injury prevention but also provide a strategic direction for future research, aiming to boost athlete safety, performance, and career longevity.

Affective responses to stretching exercises: Exploring the timing of assessments

Affective responses during exercise have been identified as a predictor of exercise adherence. However, research has been mostly limited to aerobic and resistance exercise. Considering that stretching activities are also an important component of physical fitness, this quasi-experimental study was designed to: 1) compare affective responses during and immediately after stretching exercises in apparently healthy adults, and 2) assess the consistency and repeatability of affect ratings obtained one week apart. For this purpose, we analyzed the Feeling Scale (FS) and Felt Arousal Scale (FAS) ratings using Time (during and after stretching) x Intensity (light, moderate, vigorous) x Stretched Muscle Group (quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, latissimus dorsi, triceps) with repeated measures analysis of variance (ANCOVA) in 34 participants (21 males; aged 32.8 ± 8.6 years). The repeatability of FS and FAS ratings was assessed using two-way random-effects models, Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), and Bland-Altman plots. FS scores were higher following the stretching exercises, whereas FAS scores were lower, particularly in the vigorous intensity. In general, the inter-day repeatability for FS and FAS measurements was good across muscle groups. ICC tended to be higher at vigorous intensities. Ratings of core affect can be collected during static passive stretches using the FAS and FAS in ecologically valid settings. These results suggest that an adequate assessment of core affective responses to stretching activities should be performed during the exercises.

Exploring the impact of individualized pleasure-oriented exercise sessions in a health club setting: Protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Research on the relationship between exercise-induced affect and exercise or physical activity behavior has gained momentum in recent years, yielding several observational and longitudinal studies. However, experimental tests demonstrating a causal role of affective responses on exercise adherence are lacking. Given the need to devise exercise prescriptions that can facilitate adherence and promote regular physical activity, a Randomized Controlled Trial targeting individual pleasurable responses in a health-club setting will be conducted. The experimental protocol will compare two individualized evaluation, prescription, and supervision methods, adjusted for intensity, with the aim to explore their impact on behavioral, affective, and motivational outcomes. The planned study will be a pragmatic randomized, single-blinded, controlled superiority trial with two parallel groups and an allocation ratio of 1:1. Apparently healthy volunteer participants (N = 46) between 18 and 45 years old, who are not regularly active, will be randomly allocated to a control or experimental group. The control group will follow a general American College of Sports Medicine exercise prescription; the experimental group will follow the same prescription but with enhancements aimed at promoting pleasure: (1) individualization based on individual differences in preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity; (2) self-regulation of intensity; and (3) repeated assessments of core affect. The primary outcome will be post-intervention exercise-session attendance. Affective and motivational variables will be examined as secondary outcomes. The results are expected to advance exercise prescriptions by promoting affective regulation, thus helping to improve exercise adherence and related outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov; ID: NCT05416593.

Assessing Affective Valence and Activation in Stretching Activities with the Feeling Scale and the Felt Arousal Scale: A Systematic Review

Affective responses have been considered key determinants for exercise adherence, but research on affective responses to stretching activities is scarce. Given the role of these responses in exercise adherence, our aim in this review was to explore (a) the utility and feasibility of core affect in stretching-related activities as measured by the Feeling Scale (FS) and/or the Felt Arousal Scale (FAS); (b) the timing of administering these scales; and (c) the scales' applicability and interpretability in this context. Inclusion criteria for studies in this review were experimental and non-experimental studies written in English that based affect assessment on the FS and/or FAS and that applied these scales to participants engaged in physical activity, individually or in groups. We also considered studies that focused on stretching activities that were either isolated or components of a class/activity and studies that used healthy participants of any age. Exclusion criteria were populations with mental health problems, cancer, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, or diseases likely to alter pain perception or be associated with chronic pain, instrument validation studies, gray literature, and systematic reviews. We searched PubMed, SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO databases, and we added studies retrieved manually from reference sections while following PRISMA guidelines. We used the Effective Public Health Practice Project tool for judging methodological quality of research articles. Our final analyses were based on 12 empirical studies published between 2003 and 2021with a total of 718 participants. Both scales were found to be useful and feasible in the most usual places for exercise, but core affect results cannot be properly interpreted due to variability of study protocols and the absence of guidelines for adequate baseline assessment. Most studies recorded affect responses pre-session, during session, and post-session. We observed no standardized timing or frequency of assessment, and there was high heterogeneity among stretching protocols. Currently, research in core affect assessment of stretching-related activities lacks sufficient methodological quality to draw generalizable conclusions.

Exploring the Relationship between Fibromyalgia-Related Fatigue, Physical Activity, and Quality of Life

The symptoms of fibromyalgia are varied, including general muscle pain and pain at specific points (also called tender points), excessive fatigue, anxiety, depression, and some psychological problems that can have a negative impact on quality of life. Physical activity is a widely used option by health professionals to alleviate the effects of this syndrome. However, there is no clear information on the possible mediating role of physical activity in the relationship between fibromyalgia-related fatigue and quality of life. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the relationship between fibromyalgia-related fatigue and quality of life, and to investigate the mediating role of physical activity in patients with this syndrome. Methods: In a cross-sectional study, 237 Portuguese women aged 28 to 75 years (M = 49.12; SD ± 8.87) and 117 Brazilian women aged 20 to 69 years (M = 46.72; SD ± 8.38) were recruited to participate in this study. These patients completed three valid and reliable questionnaires related to the assessment of fibromyalgia-related fatigue (MDF-Fibro-17), physical activity (IPAQ), and quality of life (SF-36). Results: Both samples had scores above the midpoint for all dimensions of fibromyalgia-related fatigue and scores below the midpoint for quality of life. Physical activity had no mediating effect in either sample, as the total indirect effect was not significant. Conclusions: Physical activity does not mediate the relationship between fatigue and quality of life. However, the results also show that the fatigue dimensions associated with fibromyalgia had a negative and significant association with physical and mental health indicators in both samples. Thus, patients with FM with higher scores on fatigue-related symptoms might suffer more from physical and mental health, both of which are related to quality of life.

Enjoyment as a Predictor of Exercise Habit, Intention to Continue Exercising, and Exercise Frequency: The Intensity Traits Discrepancy Moderation Role

Given the need to explore the factors that can account for a better understanding of the intention-behavior gap in exercise practice in health club settings, and considering the emergence of hedonic assumptions related to exercise adherence, this cross-sectional study aimed to test the moderation effect of the intensity traits agreement/disagreement in three relevant outcomes of exercise enjoyment: exercise habit, intention to continue exercising, and exercise frequency. A sample consisted of 273 exercisers (male = 127; M_age = 36.21; SD = 11.29) enrolled in nine health clubs who voluntarily fulfilled a battery of questionnaires. All analyses were performed using SPSS v. 23.0/PROCESS v. 3.5. The results of the study presented a moderation effect of exercise intensity traits agreement on three relevant enjoyment outcomes: exercise habit, intention to continue exercising, and exercise frequency. No relevant results emerged from intensity traits disagreement. The results suggest that assessing and tailoring exercise prescription and supervision in order to customize exercise intensity may influence future exercise participation.

Did You Enjoy It? The Role of Intensity-Trait Preference/Tolerance in Basic Psychological Needs and Exercise Enjoyment

Promoting exercise regimens that aim at enhancing the quality of individuals’ subjective exercise experience can be challenging. Given the recent theoretical contributions regarding the possible interaction of exercise intensity-traits and several motivational variables, as well as their potential value for exercise adherence, the objective of this study was to examine the mediation role of basic psychological needs in the relationship between preference for and tolerance of exercise intensity and enjoyment. This cross-sectional study comprised a total of 160 exercisers (Mage = 34.12, SD = 9.23, 73 males) enrolled in several health clubs. All analyses were performed using SPSS v. 23.0/PROCESS v. 3.4. The results indicate that intensity-traits presented positive associations with enjoyment, and negative associations with all of needs frustration variables. A mediation role of needs frustration emerged in the intensity-traits and enjoyment associations that was analyzed according to relatable theoretical considerations.

Could tDCS Be a Potential Performance-Enhancing Tool for Acute Neurocognitive Modulation in eSports? A Perspective Review

Competitive sports involve physical and cognitive skills. In traditional sports, there is a greater dependence on the development and performance of both motor and cognitive skills, unlike electronic sports (eSports), which depend much more on neurocognitive skills for success. However, little is known about neurocognitive functions and effective strategies designed to develop and optimize neurocognitive performance in eSports athletes. One such strategy is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), characterized as a weak electric current applied on the scalp to induce prolonged changes in cortical excitability. Therefore, our objective is to propose anodal (a)-tDCS as a performance-enhancing tool for neurocognitive functions in eSports. In this manuscript, we discussed the neurocognitive processes that underlie exceptionally skilled performances in eSports and how tDCS could be used for acute modulation of these processes in eSports. Based on the results from tDCS studies in healthy people, professional athletes, and video game players, it seems that tDCS is applied over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) as a potential performance-enhancing tool for neurocognition in eSports.

A Motivational Pathway Linking Physical Activity to Body-Related Eating Cues

OBJECTIVE

To explore the motivational transfer between physical activity (PA) and body-related eating cues, through self-determined motivations to exercise (SDM Ex) and regulate eating (SDM Eat).

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

SETTING

Participants completed an online inventory on PA and eating behaviors and motivations in 2017-2018.

PARTICIPANTS

A convenience sample of 300 adults (71% women; 34.4 ± 10.7 years; 23.2 ± 3.4 kg/m²), recruited through Facebook and cooperating Portuguese gyms.

VARIABLES MEASURED

Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (independent), SDM Ex and SDM Eat (mediators), and body-related eating cues (dependent) variables assessed through validated self-reported measures.

ANALYSIS

Structural equation modeling and serial mediation procedures were used to test the hypothetical model.

RESULTS

Physical activity was positively associated with SDM Ex, which was, in turn, associated with SDM Eat, which in turn positively predicted reliance on hunger/satiety cues and (more strongly) body-food choice congruence. The path through exercise and eating motivations was the leading mediating path in the PA and body-food choice congruence association.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This study lends support to the motivational transfer hypothesis between SDM Ex and SDM Eat in normal-weight adults, suggesting that more physically active individuals present higher SDM Ex and SDM Eat, and therefore, greater attentiveness to body-related eating cues and necessities. Encouraging PA might also improve individuals' eating self-regulation, especially if self-determined motivations are targeted in future interventions.

Trainer-exerciser relationship: The congruency effect on exerciser psychological needs using response surface analysis

Perceptions of fitness trainers' need-supportive and need-thwarting behaviors have been shown to impact exercisers' psychological need satisfaction and frustration. Currently, it is unknown whether an agreement or disagreement between exercisers' and fitness trainers' reported perceptions of these behaviors leads to the satisfaction and/or frustration of psychological needs. Based on self-determination theory, the present study examined the effect of congruency between fitness trainers' and exercisers' perceptions of need-supportive and need-thwarting interpersonal behaviors on basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration. A sample of 130 fitness trainers (43 females; M_age  = 31.58 ± 7.65) and a total of 640 gym exercisers (350 females; M_age  = 34.23 ± 11.59) participated in this study. Findings suggested that the majority of fitness trainers tended to over-report their use of need-supportive behavior and under-report their need-thwarting behaviors. Results showed that when there was congruency between fitness trainers' reported use and exercisers' perception of interpersonal behaviors, basic need satisfaction tended to increase. This effect was greater for exercisers that rated their respective fitness trainer high on relatedness support. Fitness trainers should be self-aware of their interpersonal behaviors when engaging with exercisers and interventions based on self-determination theory could serve as a promising avenue to improve the quality of exercisers' experience.

The Relationship between Teachers and Peers' Motivational Climates, Needs Satisfaction, and Physical Education Grades: An AGT and SDT Approach

Grounded in achievement goal theory and self-determination theory, this study aimed to examine the associations of students’ perception of learning- and performance-oriented climates created by teachers and peers on basic psychological needs satisfaction, and consequently their relationships with physical education grades. This study had a cross-sectional design, and 589 students aged between 10 and 18 years (M = 12.93; SD = 1.49) were recruited for analysis. Participants completed a multisection survey assessing motivational climates and basic psychological needs, and physical education grades were provided by the physical education teacher. Students’ perception of learning-oriented climates created by teachers and peers was positively and significantly associated with basic psychological needs satisfaction. Additionally, these learning-oriented climates presented a significant indirect association with physical education grades. On the other hand, the performance-oriented climate created by teachers had a negative and significant relationship with basic psychological needs satisfaction and displayed a negative indirect relationship with physical education grades. The performance-oriented climate created by peers had a positive and significant relationship with basic psychological needs satisfaction and displayed a positive indirect relationship with physical education grades. The perception of performance-oriented climates created by peers could represent a boost within the students in physical education features. Teachers have the responsibility of promoting task and learning environments in which students experience positive outcomes, not only on a motivational level but also on a cognitive level.

The Multidimensional Daily Diary of Fatigue-Fibromyalgia-17 Items (MDF-Fibro-17): Evidence from Validity, Reliability and Transcultural Invariance between Portugal and Brazil

The Multidimensional Daily Diary of Fatigue-Fibromyalgia-17 (MDF-fibro-17) is an instrument that measures the different components of fibromyalgia-related fatigue symptoms. The current study aims to examine the factor structure of the MDF-fibro-17 in a sample of Portuguese and Brazilian patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia. Additionally, a cross-cultural analysis was carried out on these samples to understand the multidimensional complexity of examining the different dimensions of fatigue in patients with different cultural backgrounds and how fibromyalgia impacts patients with this syndrome. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to examine the psychometric properties of the measure. Additionally, a multigroup analysis was carried out on the samples of these two cultures to examine measurement invariance. In total, 209 Portuguese women aged between 21 and 75 years (M = 47.44; SD = 10.73) and 429 Brazilians women aged between 16 and 77 years (M = 46.51; SD = 9.24) participated in this study. The results revealed that the measurement model provided an acceptable fit to the data in both the Portuguese and Brazilian samples, also displaying acceptable convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, the model showed acceptable internal consistency and was invariant between cultures. In sum, the MDF-fibro-17 is a valid measure that offers a unique assessment of fatigue symptoms in Portuguese and Brazilian women with fibromyalgia.

Understanding Needs Satisfaction and Frustration in Young Athletes: Factor Structure and Invariance Analysis

Sports research has been focused on the assessment of basic needs satisfaction, considering its absence as a representation of needs frustration. However, recent findings have suggested needs satisfaction and frustration as asymmetrical factors leading to differentiated outcomes. An accurate measurement of needs poses itself as a crucial aspect, facilitating coaches’ understanding of athlete’s motivational processes. This study aimed to examine the psychometric proprieties of the Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (BPNSFS) in a sample of Portuguese athletes. A multigroup analysis was conducted of gender, sport type, age, and years of sports practice. Additionally, needs satisfaction and needs frustration were tested as predictors of behavioral regulations examining the nomological validity of the BPNSFS. Data from 594 Portuguese athletes (38.6% female; M_age = 15.21; SD = 0.97) that represent two different sports (football and swimming) were analyzed. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling procedures were followed to test the factor structure and nomological validity of the scale, respectively. Analyses indicated that the six-factor model provided an adequate fit (Comparative Fit Index = 0.947, Tucker–Lewis Index = 0.936, Standardized Root Mean Square = 0.039, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.048 (CI 90% = 0.043, 0.054)). Moreover, the multigroup analysis suggested invariance in the observed structure across groups. In addition, findings indicated a strong prediction between needs satisfaction and autonomous forms of motivation, whereas needs frustration predicted significantly controlled forms of motivation. The sport-adapted BPNSFS in a sample of Portuguese athletes seemed to be an adequate measure for the assessment of basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration. Our findings suggested that this scale may be worth testing in future research in the sport context.

Exergames for Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Overview

Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder associated with various etiologies and characterized by deficits in social interaction, emotional reciprocity, communication, motor skills and cognitive functions. Studies have proposed that limited levels of physical activity and late motor skills and fitness, particularly in children and adolescents with ASD, may accentuate social and emotional deficits. In view of this, exergames, which are active video-games, can be considered a low-cost and safe type of exercise for children and adolescents with ASD, since they are more enjoyable than ordinary physical activities, influencing on treatment adherence. Thus, our study aims to evidence the effects of exergames on physical fitness, cognitive functions, and repetitive behaviors in children and adolescents with ASD. Despite the small number of studies investigating the effects of exergames as new strategy in children and adolescents with ASD, results suggest exergames as potential tool for the treatment of children and adolescents with ASD for improvement in physical fitness, cognitive functions and repetitive behavior. Our review pointed towards the importance of exergames for children and adolescents with ASD. Despite few studies conducted about this issue, we can consider exergames a potential tool to increase physical fitness, cognitive functions and to decrease repetitive behavior in children and adolescents with ASD. Moreover, health professionals should be careful when attempting to help this population, because the current literature is unclear yet about the improvement of ASD features through exergames.

Motivational patterns in persistent swimmers: A serial mediation analysis

Objective: The main objective of the present study was to examine the associations between coach-created task-involving climate and athletes' intentions to continue practicing sport, through a serial mediation analysis that included basic psychological needs satisfaction (BPN), self-determined motivation (SDM) and enjoyment. Methods: Seven-hundred and ninety-nine elite swimmers (450 males, 349 females; aged 12-22 years, M = 16.65, SD = 2.83) participated in the present study. Groups were created according to age, years of experience, and gender. Results: Serial mediation analysis provided support for the proposed model where BPN's and enjoyment represent the most important mediators between task-involving climate and athletes' intentions to continue sport practice. Conclusion: Enjoyment stands out as the most relevant predictor of intention to persist and as a significant mediator in the relation between task-involvement climate, BPN, SDM, and long-term sports practice. The task-involving climate created by coaches appears to set in motion a sequence where the satisfaction of basic needs and SDM lead to more enjoyment and increased persistence among young athletes.

Have you been exercising lately? Testing the role of past behavior on exercise adherence

The purpose of this study was to test the effect of past behavior on future behavior, considering the motivational sequence proposed by the self-determination theory. The total sample was formed by 293 exercisers aged between 18 and 65 (M = 36.57 ± SD = 11.25) years. Participants completed a multi-section survey of motivational, emotional and cognitive-related variables, and exercise adherence was measured using computer records. Past behavior was found to offset the direct effect of intention on future behavior and the indirect effect of all other variables under analysis on intention, acting as a "buffer" variable for experienced gym members.

The Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale in Exercise (BPNSFS-E): Validity, Reliability, and Gender Invariance in Portuguese Exercisers

The aim of this study was to translate and validate the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale for Portuguese exercisers. In addition, we sought to analyze gender invariance. We collected data from two independent samples of Portuguese respondents—a calibration sample with 316 participants and a validation sample with 632 participants. Results from confirmatory factor analysis supported the original six-factor model in both the calibration sample, χ2(237) = 471.814, χ2/ df = 1.99; B–S p < .001, Comparative Fit Index = .935, Tucker–Lewis Index =.924, standard mean root square residual = .047, root mean square error of approximation = .057 (90% confidence interval = [.050, .065]), and the validation sample, χ2(237) = 571.796, χ2/ df = 2.41; B–S p < .001, Comparative Fit Index = .948, Tucker–Lewis Index = .940, standard mean root square residual = .038, root mean square error of approximation = .047 (90% confidence interval = [.042, .052]). Moreover, our analysis revealed acceptable internal consistency, convergent and discriminant validity of the translated version, and invariance between the two samples and between genders, as differences across latent means showed that magnitude effects were trivial between samples and between male and female exercisers. These results support the use of the adapted scale among both male and female exercisers.

Promoting Physical Exercise Participation: The Role of Interpersonal Behaviors for Practical Implications

The number of people engaging in physical exercise has been decreasing every year. These behaviors are known to be related with non-communicable chronic diseases and to drastically increase premature morbidity and mortality. Since "the lack of motivation" has been pointed out as one of the main reasons for not engaging in physical exercise, several theoretical and empirical studies have been conducted aimed at understanding what influences behavior regulation. According to literature, gym exercisers who perceive exercise instructors as supportive are more likely to maintain physical exercise participation over the long-run. Supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness should be carefully considered when interacting with health club clients as a way to promote more autonomous motivation. Overall, it seems that exercise instructors should foster a supportive environment for gym exercisers, in order to encourage exercise as a habitual behavior.

Motivational determinants of physical education grades and the intention to practice sport in the future

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is amongst motivational frameworks the most popular and contemporary approach to human motivation, being applied in the last decades in several domains, including sport, exercise and physical education (PE). Additionally, Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) has presented evidence of how contextual factors may influence student's behavior in this particular context. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the motivational climate created by the teacher in the classroom, students' satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs (BPN), and how their behavioral regulation could explain PE grades and intention to practice sports in the future.

METHOD

A total of 618 students (290 female; 328 male) from the 6th to the 9th school level, aged between 10 and 18 years (M = 13.3; SD = 1.7) participated in this study. The following surveys were used for the proposed variables: Learning and Performance Orientations in Physical Education Classes Questionnaire (LAPOPECQ); the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNESp); and the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOCp). Intentions to practice sport/physical activity in the future were assessed through a single item. Students' PE grade was obtained through his/her teacher final assessment. Structural Equation Analysis was performed via AMOS 23.0.

RESULTS

After analyzing modification indices and model adjustment, the final model emerged: learning climate > BPN > autonomous motivation > intentions/PE grade. Results interpretation seems to indicate that i) the satisfaction of BPN are influenced by motivational climate (i.e., learning climate), ii) the individuals' motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs (i.e., particularly competence), and iii) the motivational regulations have direct and significant effects with intention to practice sports outside school in the future and PE grades.

DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

The main results showed that a climate oriented for learning has a positive impact on basic psychological needs satisfaction of students. However, only competence satisfaction had a significant positive relationship with students' autonomous motivation, which in turn had a significant positive relation with PE grade, as well as for intentions for leisure-time sport/physical activity practice.

The Passion Scale-Portuguese Version: Reliability, Validity, and Invariance of Gender and Sport

The aim of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of the original version of the Passion Scale (14 items, two factors). We tested it within a sample of mixed gender Portuguese athletes from different sports, including adapted sports. In addition to demonstrating reliability, validity, and confirmatory factor analyses of the Passion Scale, we sought to analyze the invariance of this measure between males and females and across six types of sports (soccer, futsal, swimming, surf, bodyboard, and adapted sports). We recruited 1,316 athletes to test this scale from both genders (1,109 males; 207 females), aged 14-59 years (M = 21.83; SD = 8.67). Our main results revealed weaknesses in the factor model for the original instrument (14 items and two factors) leading us to reject the model. However, after adapting the model (to eight items and two factors), the psychometric properties of the Passion Scale improved substantially and then exhibited (a) good fit to the data and (b) invariance between gender and across sports. Our new proposed version of the Passion Scale can be used with confidence to analyze the passion athletes feel when practicing their sport.

Behavioral Regulation Sport Questionnaire: Gender and Sport Invariance in Portuguese Athletes

This study aimed to analyze measurement invariance of the Behavioral Regulation Sports Questionnaire (BRSQ) across gender and four different sports. In addition, we examined nomological validity via basic psychological needs satisfaction. Participants totaled 1,812 Portuguese athletes (1,220 males and 592 females; aged 15-59 years, Mage = 17.72, SD = 5.51) from football ( n = 596), basketball ( n = 273), swimming ( n = 800), and parasport ( n = 143). The BRSQ measurement model was invariant across gender and these four sports. The scale confirmed nomological validity in that satisfaction of basic psychological needs positively predicted autonomous forms of motivation and negatively predicted more controlled motivation and amotivation as suggested by self-determination theory. In light of this evidence for BRSQ construct validity, composite reliability, nomological validity, and invariance across gender and four different sports, this scale is a useful tool for coaches of the aforementioned sports in their efforts to evaluate their athletes' motivation.

Perceived Effort in Football Athletes: The Role of Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory

This study examined the motivational determinants of athletes perceived effort in football considering the four-stage motivational sequence at the contextual level proposed by Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: task-involving climate, basic psychological needs, self-determined motivation (SDM), and perceived effort. Additionally, SEM multi-group analysis across different age-groups (U15, U17, U19, and U21 years) and serial mediation of basic psychological needs (BPNs) and SDM on the task-involving motivational climate and the perceived effort were also analyzed. Two independent samples of male football athletes (N = 403, N = 403), aged 13–20 years were enrolled in this study. The results support the adequacy of the structural model in explaining the perceived effort of football atheltes in all samples under analysis, and was invariant across U17, U19, and U21. However, it was not invariant across U15 and U17, U19 and U21. Furthermore, results from the serial mediation showed significant indirect effects in all samples, supporting self-determination theoretical assumptions, reinforcing the importance of BPNs satisfaction and behavioral regulation in the relation in analysis. The results show that when coaches promote a task-involving climate, the BPNs satisfaction of athletes improves. This climate will facilitate the regulation of their behaviors toward more autonomous forms of motivation, with positive outcomes in the athletes perceived effort.