Altered GM1 catabolism affects NMDAR-mediated Ca2+ signaling at ER-PM junctions and increases synaptic spine formation in a GM1-gangliosidosis model

Endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane (ER-PM) junctions mediate Ca2+ flux across neuronal membranes. The properties of these membrane contact sites are defined by their lipid content, but little attention has been given to glycosphingolipids (GSLs). Here, we show that GM1-ganglioside, an abundant GSL in neuronal membranes, is integral to ER-PM junctions; it interacts with synaptic proteins/receptors and regulates Ca2+ signaling. In a model of the neurodegenerative lysosomal storage disease, GM1-gangliosidosis, pathogenic accumulation of GM1 at ER-PM junctions due to β-galactosidase deficiency drastically alters neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis. Mechanistically, we show that GM1 interacts with the phosphorylated N-methyl D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) Ca2+ channel, thereby increasing Ca2+ flux, activating extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling, and increasing the number of synaptic spines without increasing synaptic connectivity. Thus, GM1 clustering at ER-PM junctions alters synaptic plasticity and worsens the generalized neuronal cell death characteristic of GM1-gangliosidosis.

AAV-mediated gene therapy for Sialidosis

Sialidosis is a glycoprotein storage disease caused by deficiency of the lysosomal sialidase NEU1, which leads to pathogenic accumulation of sialylated glycoproteins and oligosaccharides in tissues and body fluids. The disease belongs to the group of orphan disorders with no therapy currently available. Here, we have tested the therapeutic potential of AAV-mediated gene therapy for the treatment of sialidosis in a mouse model of the disease. One-month-old Neu1 -/- mice were co-injected with two scAAV2/8 vectors, expressing NEU1 and its chaperone PPCA, and sacrificed at 3 months post-injection. Treated mice were phenotypically indistinguishable from their WT controls. Histopathologically, they showed diminished or absent vacuolization in cells of visceral organs, including the kidney, as well as the choroid plexus and other areas of the brain. This was accompanied by restoration of NEU1 activity in most tissues, reversal of sialyl-oligosacchariduria, and normalization of lysosomal exocytosis in the CSF and serum of treated mice. AAV injection prevented the occurrence of generalized fibrosis, which is a prominent contributor of disease pathogenesis in Neu1 -/- mice and likely in patients. Overall, this therapeutic strategy holds promise for the treatment of sialidosis and may be applicable to adult forms of human idiopathic fibrosis with low NEU1 expression.

Mitochondrial proteostasis mediated by CRL5 Ozz and Alix maintains skeletal muscle function

High energy-demanding tissues, such as skeletal muscle, require mitochondrial proteostasis to function properly. Two quality-control mechanisms, the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) and the release of mitochondria-derived vesicles, safeguard mitochondrial proteostasis. However, whether these processes interact is unknown. Here we show that the E3 ligase CRL5 ^Ozz , a member of the UPS, and its substrate Alix control the mitochondrial concentration of Slc25A4, a solute carrier that is essential for ATP production. The mitochondria in Ozz ^-/- or Alix ^-/- skeletal muscle share overt morphologic alterations (they are supernumerary, swollen, and dysmorphic) and have abnormal metabolomic profiles. We found that CRL5 ^Ozz ubiquitinates Slc25A4 and promotes its proteasomal degradation, while Alix facilitates SLC25A4 loading into exosomes destined for lysosomal destruction. The loss of Ozz or Alix offsets steady-state levels of Slc25A4, which disturbs mitochondrial metabolism and alters muscle fiber composition. These findings reveal hitherto unknown regulatory functions of Ozz and Alix in mitochondrial proteostasis.

Altered GM1 catabolism affects NMDAR-mediated Ca 2+ signaling at ER-PM junctions and increases synaptic spine formation

Endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane (ER-PM) junctions mediate Ca 2+ flux across neuronal membranes. The properties of these membrane contact sites are defined by their lipid content, but little attention has been given to glycosphingolipids (GSLs). Here, we show that GM1-ganglioside, an abundant GSL in neuronal membranes, is integral to ER-PM junctions; it interacts with synaptic proteins/receptors and regulates Ca 2+ signaling. In a model of the neurodegenerative lysosomal storage disease, GM1-gangliosidosis, pathogenic accumulation of GM1 at ER-PM junctions due to β-galactosidase deficiency drastically alters neuronal Ca 2+ homeostasis. Mechanistically, we show that GM1 interacts with the phosphorylated NMDAR Ca 2+ channel, thereby increasing Ca 2+ flux, activating ERK signaling, and increasing the number of synaptic spines without increasing synaptic connectivity. Thus, GM1 clustering at ER-PM junctions alters synaptic plasticity and exacerbates the generalized neuronal cell death characteristic of GM1-gangliosidosis.

Distinct functions of dimeric and monomeric scaffold protein Alix in regulating F-actin assembly and loading of exosomal cargo

Alix is a ubiquitously expressed scaffold protein that participates in numerous cellular processes related to the remodeling/repair of membranes and the actin cytoskeleton. Alix exists in monomeric and dimeric/multimeric configurations, but how dimer formation occurs and what role the dimer has in Alix-mediated processes are still largely elusive. Here, we reveal a mechanism for Alix homodimerization mediated by disulfide bonds under physiological conditions, and demonstrate that the Alix dimer is enriched in exosomes and F-actin cytoskeleton subcellular fractions. Proteomic analysis of exosomes derived from Alix^-/- primary cells underlined the indispensable role of Alix in loading syntenin into exosomes, thereby regulating the cellular levels of this protein. Using a set of deletion mutants, we define the function of Alix Bro1 domain, which is solely required for its exosomal localization, and that of the V domain, which is needed for recruiting syntenin into exosomes. We reveal an essential role for Cys⁸¹⁴ within the disordered proline rich domain (PRD) for Alix dimerization. By mutating this residue, we show that Alix remains exclusively monomeric and, in this configuration, is effective in loading syntenin into exosomes. In contrast, loss of dimerization affects the ability of Alix to associate with F-actin, thereby compromising Alix-mediated cytoskeleton remodeling. We propose that dimeric and monomeric forms of Alix selectively execute two of the protein's main functions: exosomal cargo loading and cytoskeleton remodeling.

AAV-mediated gene therapy for galactosialidosis: A long-term safety and efficacy study

AAV-mediated gene therapy holds promise for the treatment of lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs), some of which are already in clinical trials. Yet, ultra-rare subtypes of LSDs, such as some glycoproteinoses, have lagged. Here, we report on a long-term safety and efficacy preclinical study conducted in the murine model of galactosialidosis, a glycoproteinosis caused by a deficiency of protective protein/cathepsin A (PPCA). One-month-old Ctsa -/- mice were injected intravenously with a high dose of a self-complementary AAV2/8 vector expressing human CTSA in the liver. Treated mice, examined up to 12 months post injection, appeared grossly indistinguishable from their wild-type littermates. Sustained expression of scAAV2/8-CTSA in the liver resulted in the release of the therapeutic precursor protein in circulation and its widespread uptake by cells in visceral organs and the brain. Increased cathepsin A activity resolved lysosomal vacuolation throughout the affected organs and sialyl-oligosacchariduria. No signs of hyperplasia or inflammation were detected in the liver up to a year of age. Clinical chemistry panels, blood cell counts, and T cell immune responses were normal in all treated animals. These results warrant a close consideration of this gene therapy approach for the treatment of galactosialidosis, an orphan disease with no cure in sight.

Galactosialidosis: preclinical enzyme replacement therapy in a mouse model of the disease, a proof of concept

Galactosialidosis is a rare lysosomal storage disease caused by a congenital defect of protective protein/cathepsin A (PPCA) and secondary deficiency of neuraminidase-1 and β-galactosidase. PPCA is a lysosomal serine carboxypeptidase that functions as a chaperone for neuraminidase-1 and β-galactosidase within a lysosomal multi-protein complex. Combined deficiency of the three enzymes leads to accumulation of sialylated glycoproteins and oligosaccharides in tissues and body fluids and manifests in a systemic disease pathology with severity mostly correlating with the type of mutation(s) and age of onset of the symptoms. Here, we describe a proof-of-concept, preclinical study toward the development of enzyme replacement therapy for galactosialidosis, using a recombinant human PPCA. We show that the recombinant enzyme, taken up by patient-derived fibroblasts, restored cathepsin A, neuraminidase-1, and β-galactosidase activities. Long-term, bi-weekly injection of the recombinant enzyme in a cohort of mice with null mutation at the PPCA (CTSA) locus (PPCA -/- ), a faithful model of the disease, demonstrated a dose-dependent, systemic internalization of the enzyme by cells of various organs, including the brain. This resulted in restoration/normalization of the three enzyme activities, resolution of histopathology, and reduction of sialyloligosacchariduria. These positive results underscore the benefits of a PPCA-mediated enzyme replacement therapy for the treatment of galactosialidosis.

Excessive exosome release is the pathogenic pathway linking a lysosomal deficiency to generalized fibrosis

Lysosomal exocytosis is a ubiquitous process negatively regulated by neuraminidase 1 (NEU1), a sialidase mutated in the glycoprotein storage disease sialidosis. In Neu1-/- mice, excessive lysosomal exocytosis is at the basis of disease pathogenesis. Yet, the tissue-specific molecular consequences of this deregulated pathway are still unfolding. We now report that in muscle connective tissue, Neu1-/- fibroblasts have features of myofibroblasts and are proliferative, migratory, and exocytose large amounts of exosomes. These nanocarriers loaded with activated transforming growth factor-β and wingless-related integration site (WNT)/β-catenin signaling molecules propagate fibrotic signals to other cells, maintaining the tissue in a prolonged transitional status. Myofibroblast-derived exosomes fed to normal fibroblasts convert them into myofibroblasts, changing the recipient cells' proliferative and migratory properties. These findings reveal an unexpected exosome-mediated signaling pathway downstream of NEU1 deficiency that propagates a fibrotic disease and could be implicated in idiopathic forms of fibrosis in humans.

Alix-mediated assembly of the actomyosin-tight junction polarity complex preserves epithelial polarity and epithelial barrier

Maintenance of epithelial cell polarity and epithelial barrier relies on the spatial organization of the actin cytoskeleton and proper positioning/assembly of intercellular junctions. However, how these processes are regulated is poorly understood. Here we reveal a key role for the multifunctional protein Alix in both processes. In a knockout mouse model of Alix, we identified overt structural changes in the epithelium of the choroid plexus and in the ependyma, such as asymmetrical cell shape and size, misplacement and abnormal beating of cilia, blebbing of the microvilli. These defects culminate in excessive cell extrusion, enlargement of the lateral ventricles and hydrocephalus. Mechanistically, we find that by interacting with F-actin, the Par complex and ZO-1, Alix ensures the formation and maintenance of the apically restricted actomyosin-tight junction complex. We propose that in this capacity Alix plays a role in the establishment of apical-basal polarity and in the maintenance of the epithelial barrier.

Regulated lysosomal exocytosis mediates cancer progression

Understanding how tumor cells transition to an invasive and drug-resistant phenotype is central to cancer biology, but the mechanisms underlying this transition remain unclear. We show that sarcomas gain these malignant traits by inducing lysosomal exocytosis, a ubiquitous physiological process. During lysosomal exocytosis, the movement of exocytic lysosomes along the cytoskeleton and their docking at the plasma membrane involve LAMP1, a sialylated membrane glycoprotein and target of the sialidase NEU1. Cleavage of LAMP1 sialic acids by NEU1 limits the extent of lysosomal exocytosis. We found that by down-regulation of NEU1 and accumulation of oversialylated LAMP1, tumor cells exacerbate lysosomal exocytosis of soluble hydrolases and exosomes. This facilitates matrix invasion and propagation of invasive signals, and purging of lysosomotropic chemotherapeutics. In Arf (-⁄-) mice, Neu1 haploinsufficiency fostered the development of invasive, pleomorphic sarcomas, expressing epithelial and mesenchymal markers, and lysosomal exocytosis effectors, LAMP1 and Myosin-11. These features are analogous to those of metastatic, pleomorphic human sarcomas, where low NEU1 levels correlate with high expression of lysosomal exocytosis markers. In a therapeutic proof of principle, we demonstrate that inhibiting lysosomal exocytosis reversed invasiveness and chemoresistance in aggressive sarcoma cells. Thus, we reveal that this unconventional, lysosome-regulated pathway plays a primary role in tumor progression and chemoresistance.

Chaperone-mediated gene therapy with recombinant AAV-PPCA in a new mouse model of type I sialidosis

The lysosomal storage disease sialidosis is caused by a primary deficiency of the sialidase N-acetyl-α-neuraminidase-1 (NEU1). Patients with type I sialidosis develop an attenuated, non-neuropathic form of the disease also named cherry red spot myoclonus syndrome, with symptoms arising during juvenile/ adult age. NEU1 requires binding to its chaperone, protective protein/cathepsin A (PPCA), for lysosomal compartmentalization, stability and catalytic activation. We have generated a new mouse model of type I sialidosis that ubiquitously expresses a NEU1 variant carrying a V54M amino acid substitution identified in an adult patient with type I sialidosis. Mutant mice developed signs of lysosomal disease after 1year of age, predominantly in the kidney, albeit low residual NEU1 activity was detected in most organs and cell types. We demonstrate that the activity of the mutant enzyme could be effectively increased in all systemic tissues by chaperone-mediated gene therapy with a liver-tropic recombinant AAV2/8 vector expressing PPCA. This resulted in clear amelioration of the disease phenotype. These results suggest that at least some of the NEU1 mutations associated with type I sialidosis may respond to PPCA-chaperone-mediated gene therapy.

Preclinical dose-finding study with a liver-tropic, recombinant AAV-2/8 vector in the mouse model of galactosialidosis

Galactosialidosis (GS) is a lysosomal storage disease linked to deficiency of the protective protein/cathepsin A (PPCA). Similarly to GS patients, Ppca-null mice develop a systemic disease of the reticuloendothelial system, affecting most visceral organs and the nervous system. Symptoms include severe nephropathy, visceromegaly, infertility, progressive ataxia, and shortened life span. Here, we have conducted a preclinical, dose-finding study on a large cohort of GS mice injected intravenously at 1 month of age with increasing doses of a GMP-grade rAAV2/8 vector, expressing PPCA under the control of a liver-specific promoter. Treated mice, monitored for 16 weeks post-treatment, had normal physical appearance and behavior without discernable side effects. Despite the restricted expression of the transgene in the liver, immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses of other systemic organs, serum, and urine showed a dose-dependent, widespread correction of the disease phenotype, suggestive of a protein-mediated mechanism of cross-correction. A notable finding was that rAAV-treated GS mice showed high expression of PPCA in the reproductive organs, which resulted in reversal of their infertility. Together these results support the use of this rAAV-PPCA vector as a viable and safe method of gene delivery for the treatment of systemic disease in non-neuropathic GS patients.