Hunger increases negative and decreases positive emotions in women with a healthy weight

The term 'hangry' is colloquially used to describe being "bad tempered or irritable as a result of hunger," but remarkably few studies have examined the effect of hunger on emotions. Yet, women attempting to restrict their food intake may be at risk of becoming entangled in a vicious cycle of hunger and negative emotions. That is, hunger may lead to negative emotions, which can lead to overeating and overeating can, in turn, provoke subsequent restriction leading to more hunger. Therefore the aim of this study was to examine the effect of hunger on positive and negative emotions in women with a healthy BMI, and the role of subclinical eating disorder symptoms in this effect. We randomly assigned women to a hunger condition (fasting for 14 h, n = 53) or satiated condition (eat breakfast before the study, n = 55), and they completed the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire and the Profile of Mood States in the lab. Hungry women reported overall higher negative emotions (higher tension, anger, fatigue, and confusion) and lower positive emotions (lower vigour and marginally lower esteem-related affect) than satiated women. Moreover, for satiated but not for hungry women, higher eating disorder symptoms were associated with lower esteem-related affect. These findings show that food restriction leads to negative emotions, and practitioners and individuals should be aware of these implications of food restriction on mental health. Second, clinicians and individuals should be wary of relatively low esteem-related affect when satiated in individuals with eating disorder symptoms, as it could serve as a maintaining factor in eating pathology.

Why Dieters Succeed or Fail: The Relationship Between Reward and Punishment Sensitivity and Restrained Eating and Dieting Success

BACKGROUND

The current study set out to improve our understanding of the characteristics of individuals who are motivated to restrict their food intake yet who nevertheless fail to do so. We examined whether punishment sensitivity (PS) was related to restrained eating, and reward sensitivity (RS) to perceived dieting success. Additionally, it was examined whether executive control (EC) moderates the association between RS and perceived dieting success.

METHODS

Female student participants (N = 290, aged 17-29, BMI between 18.5 and 38.0) completed questionnaires on restrained eating, perceived dieting success, RS and PS, and carried out a behavioral task to index EC.

RESULTS

PS was indeed positively related to restrained eating. RS was positively related to perceived dieting success, yet, EC did not moderate this association.

CONCLUSION

The current study adds to the evidence that PS is related to individuals' motivation to restrict their food intake. Furthermore, it shows support for the suggestion that RS may facilitate food restriction.

Predictive value of implicit and explicit self-esteem for the recurrence of depression and anxiety disorders: A 3-year follow-up study

Anxiety and depressive disorders are characterized by high rates of recurrence, substantially contributing to the high burden associated with these disorders. It is therefore crucial to identify factors related to recurrence, as they may provide viable targets for preventative intervention. Previous studies have observed a link between low self-esteem and subsequent symptoms of depression and anxiety, and low levels of self-esteem in those recovered from a depression or an anxiety disorder. Research also suggests that it is crucial to differentiate more explicit self-esteem (ESE) from more implicit self-esteem (ISE). The current study is the first to test whether ISE and ESE predict recurrence of depression and recurrence of anxiety during a 3-year follow-up as determined with clinical interviews. The sample included those with a history of a depressive disorder (n = 559) and/or a history of an anxiety disorder (n = 458) who had been depression- and anxiety-free for at least six months at baseline. During the 3-year follow-up, 119 (21%) and 104 (23%) had a depression and anxiety recurrence, respectively. ISE predicted recurrence of both depression and anxiety, even when statistically controlling for residual symptoms and neuroticism at baseline. ESE also showed predictive value, although this was not over and above residual symptoms. Explorative analyses suggest that ESE and ISE improved little, or not at all, from currently having a depression or anxiety disorder to recovery. These results therefore suggest that ISE may be an important target for interventions to prevent the recurrence of both depression and anxiety disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Influence of hunger on attentional engagement with and disengagement from pictorial food cues in women with a healthy weight

Because of inconsistencies in the field of attentional bias to food cues in eating behavior, this study aimed to re-examine the assumption that hungry healthy weight individuals have an attentional bias to food cues, but satiated healthy weight individuals do not. Since attentional engagement and attentional disengagement have been proposed to play a distinct role in behavior, we used a performance measure that is specifically designed to differentiate between these two attentional processes. Participants were healthy weight women who normally eat breakfast. In the satiated condition (n = 54), participants were instructed to have breakfast just before coming to the lab. In the fasted condition (n = 50), participants fasted on average 14 h before coming into the lab. Satiated women showed no stronger attentional engagement or attentional disengagement bias to food cues than to neutral cues. Fasted women did show stronger attentional engagement to food cues than to neutral cues that were shown briefly (100 ms). They showed no bias in attentional engagement to food cues that were shown longer (500 ms) or in attentional disengagement from food cues. These findings are in line with the assumption that healthy weight individuals show an attentional bias to food cues when food stimuli are motivationally salient. Furthermore, the findings point to the importance of differentiating between attentional engagement and attentional disengagement.

The relation between empathy and depressive symptoms in a Dutch population sample

BACKGROUND

Impairments in social functioning are common in individuals with (sub)clinical levels of depression. One possible underlying mechanism of this relationship is low empathy. The present study examined linear and non-linear associations between empathy and depressive symptoms, and whether these associations were moderated by gender.

METHODS

Using the Empathy Quotient scale, cognitive and affective empathy were assessed using a large convenience sample from the general Dutch population (N = 3076). Depressive symptoms were indexed by the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS) and the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS-SR16).

RESULTS

Low cognitive empathy was associated with more depressive symptoms. There was a weak positive relation between affective empathy and depressive symptoms, indexed by the QIDS rather than the DASS.

LIMITATIONS

Generalizing results to the general population remains difficult with a convenience sample. Self-reported data may be affected by social-desirability or sex-stereotypical reporting biases.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results support a linear relationship between cognitive empathy and symptoms of depression. There was some evidence for non-linear associations and a moderating role of gender, but these patterns were not observed across all types of analysis.

The effectiveness of attentional bias modification for substance use disorder symptoms in adults: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Attentional bias modification (ABM) interventions have been developed to address addiction by reducing attentional bias for substance-related cues. This study provides a systematic review of the effectiveness of ABM interventions in decreasing symptoms of addictive behaviour, taking baseline levels of attentional bias and changes in attentional bias into account.

METHODS

We included randomised and non-randomised studies that investigated the effectiveness of ABM interventions in heavy-using adults and treatment-seeking individuals with symptoms of substance use disorder to manipulate attentional bias and to reduce substance use-related symptoms. We searched for relevant English peer-reviewed articles without any restriction for the year of publication using PsycINFO, PubMed, and ISI Web in August 2016. Study quality was assessed regarding reporting, external validity, internal validity, and power of the study.

RESULTS

Eighteen studies were included: nine studies reported on ABM intervention effects in alcohol use, six studies on nicotine use, and three studies on opiate use. The included studies differed with regard to type of ABM intervention (modified dot probe task n = 14; Alcohol Attention Control Training Programme n = 4), outcome measures, amount and length of provided sessions, and context (clinic versus laboratory versus home environment). The study quality mostly ranged from low average to high average (one study scored below the quality cut-off). Ten studies reported significant changes of symptoms of addictive behaviour, whereas eight studies found no effect of ABM interventions on symptoms. However, when restricted to multi-session ABM intervention studies, eight out of ten studies found effects on symptoms of addiction. Surprisingly, these effects on symptoms of addictive behaviour showed no straightforward relationship with baseline attentional bias and its change from baseline to post-test.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite a number of negative findings and the diversity of studies, multi-session ABM interventions, especially in the case of alcohol and when the Alcohol Attention Control Training Programme was used, appear to have positive effects on symptoms of addictive behaviour. However, more rigorous well-powered future research in clinical samples is needed before firm conclusions regarding the effectiveness of ABM interventions can be drawn.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

Registration number PROSPERO: CRD42016046823.

Negative body image: Relationships with heightened disgust propensity, disgust sensitivity, and self-directed disgust

Consistent with the view that disgust might be involved in persistent body dissatisfaction, there is preliminary evidence showing a positive correlation between measures of negative body image and indices of both trait disgust and self-directed disgust. In two correlational studies among undergraduates (N = 577 and N = 346, respectively) we aimed at replicating and extending these findings by testing a series of critical relationships, which follow from our hypotheses that 1) trait disgust propensity would increase the risk of developing a negative body image by increasing the likelihood of feeling self-disgust, and 2) trait disgust sensitivity would heighten the impact of self-disgust on the development of persistent negative body appraisals. Replicating previous research, both studies showed that negative body image was positively related to self-disgust, disgust propensity and disgust sensitivity. Mediation analyses showed that, in line with our model, self-disgust partly accounted for the association between disgust propensity and negative body image. Although disgust sensitivity showed an independent relationship with body image, disgust sensitivity did not moderate the association between self-disgust and negative body image. All in all, findings are consistent with the view that self-disgust-induced avoidance may contribute to persistent negative body appraisals.

Reinforcement sensitivity and restrained eating: the moderating role of executive control

PURPOSE

As the prevalence of overweight and obesity are still increasing, it is important to help individuals who encounter difficulty with losing weight. The current study was set out to further investigate characteristics of individuals who are highly motivated to restrict their food intake to lose weight, but fail to do so (i.e., restrained eaters). The motivation to lose weight might stem from high punishment sensitivity, whereas the failure to succeed in restricting food intake might be the result of high reward sensitivity. Thus, it was examined whether restrained eaters are characterized by both high reward sensitivity and high punishment sensitivity. Additionally, this is the first study to examine executive control as a potential moderator of this relationship.

METHODS

Female undergraduates (N = 60) performed a behavioral measure of executive control, and completed the Restraint Scale to index level of restrained eating as well as two questionnaires on reinforcement sensitivity; the Behavioral Inhibition Scale/Behavioral Activation Scale, and the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire.

RESULTS

There was a positive relationship between restrained eating and punishment sensitivity as indexed by both questionnaires. Reward sensitivity as measured by both indices was not directly related to restrained eating. Executive control moderated the relation between reward responsivity (but not reward-drive) and restrained eating; specifically in women with relatively weak executive control there was a positive relationship between reward responsivity and restrained eating behavior.

CONCLUSION

In women with low executive control, restrained eating is associated with both heightened sensitivity to punishment and heightened responsivity to reward.

Implicit Measures of Actual Versus Ideal Body Image: Relations with Self-Reported Body Dissatisfaction and Dieting Behaviors

Body dissatisfaction refers to a negative appreciation of one's own body stemming from a discrepancy between how one perceives his/her body (actual body image) and how he/she wants it to be (ideal body image). To circumvent the limitations of self-report measures of body image, measures were developed that allow for a distinction between actual and ideal body image at the implicit level. The first goal of the present study was to investigate whether self-reported body dissatisfaction is related to implicit measures of actual and ideal body image as captured by the Relational Responding Task (RRT). Secondly, we examined whether these RRT measures were related to several indices of dieting behavior. Women high in body dissatisfaction (n = 30) were characterized by relatively strong implicit I-am-fat beliefs, whereas their implicit I-want-to-be-thinner beliefs were similar to individuals low in body dissatisfaction (n = 37). Implicit body image beliefs showed no added value over explicit body image beliefs in predicting body dissatisfaction and dieting behavior. These findings support the idea that the interplay between ideal and actual body image drives (self-reported) body dissatisfaction. However, strong support for the view that it would be critical to differentiate between explicit and implicit body image beliefs is missing.

Depressive Symptoms and the Experience of Pleasure in Daily Life: An Exploration of Associations in Early and Late Adolescence

Although loss of pleasure (i.e., anhedonia) is one of the two core symptoms of depression, very little research has examined the relation between depressive symptoms and the experience of pleasure in daily life. This exploratory study in two population-based adolescent samples aimed to examine how depressive symptoms and anhedonia specifically were related to (1) the proportion and intensity of positive events, (2) mean and variability of positive affect (PA), (3) reactivity to positive events, and (4) reactivity to PA (i.e., whether PA elicits positive events). We used Experience Sampling to measure positive events and PA several times a day during 6 to 14 days in early (N = 284) and late (N = 74) adolescents. Results showed that depressive symptoms were related to a lower proportion and intensity of positive events, lower mean PA, and higher variability in PA regardless of sex and stage of adolescence. No clear evidence was found for differential reactivity to positive events or to PA. Anhedonia was not associated with most daily life experiences of pleasure. Our findings, though preliminary, suggest that although adolescents with many depressive symptoms experience less positive events and lower PA, they are able to enjoy pleasurable events to the same extent as individuals with fewer depressive symptoms.

Life changes and depressive symptoms: the effects of valence and amount of change

BACKGROUND

Only few studies have focused on the effects of positive life changes on depression, and the ones that did demonstrated inconsistent findings. The aim of the present study was to obtain a better understanding of the influence of positive life changes on depressive symptoms by decomposing life changes into a valence and an amount of change component.

METHODS

Using hierarchical multiple regression, we examined the unique effects of valence (pleasantness/unpleasantness) and amount of change on depressive symptoms in 2230 adolescents (M age: 16.28 years) from the TRAILS study.

RESULTS

Adjusted for age, gender and pre-event depressive symptoms, the amount of life change was positively associated with depressive symptoms. A small excess of positive life changes predicted fewer symptoms, but experiencing a large excess of positive life changes did not have any additional beneficial effects, rather the opposite. Valence was more strongly associated with cognitive-affective than with neurovegetative-somatic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

More positive life changes relative to negative life changes can protect against depressive symptoms, yet only when the amount of change is limited. This study encourages examination of the effects of life changes on specific symptom clusters instead of total numbers of depressive symptoms, which is the current standard.