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Sharma VP, Tang B, Wang Y, Duran CL, Karagiannis GS, Xue EA, Entenberg D, Borriello L, Coste A, Eddy RJ, Kim G, Ye X, Jones JG, Grunblatt E, Agi N, Roy S, Bandyopadhyaya G, Adler E, Surve CR, Esposito D, Goswami S, Segall JE, Guo W, Condeelis JS, Wakefield LM, Oktay MH. Live tumor imaging shows macrophage induction and TMEM-mediated enrichment of cancer stem cells during metastatic dissemination. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7300. [PMID: 34911937 PMCID: PMC8674234 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27308-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play an important role during metastasis, but the dynamic behavior and induction mechanisms of CSCs are not well understood. Here, we employ high-resolution intravital microscopy using a CSC biosensor to directly observe CSCs in live mice with mammary tumors. CSCs display the slow-migratory, invadopod-rich phenotype that is the hallmark of disseminating tumor cells. CSCs are enriched near macrophages, particularly near macrophage-containing intravasation sites called Tumor Microenvironment of Metastasis (TMEM) doorways. Substantial enrichment of CSCs occurs on association with TMEM doorways, contributing to the finding that CSCs represent >60% of circulating tumor cells. Mechanistically, stemness is induced in non-stem cancer cells upon their direct contact with macrophages via Notch-Jagged signaling. In breast cancers from patients, the density of TMEM doorways correlates with the proportion of cancer cells expressing stem cell markers, indicating that in human breast cancer TMEM doorways are not only cancer cell intravasation portals but also CSC programming sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ved P Sharma
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Binwu Tang
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yarong Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Camille L Duran
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - George S Karagiannis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Emily A Xue
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - David Entenberg
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Lucia Borriello
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Anouchka Coste
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Surgery, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Robert J Eddy
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Gina Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Xianjun Ye
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Joan G Jones
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Eli Grunblatt
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nathan Agi
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sweta Roy
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Esther Adler
- Department of Pathology, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Chinmay R Surve
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Dominic Esposito
- Protein Expression Laboratory, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Sumanta Goswami
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jeffrey E Segall
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Wenjun Guo
- Department of Cell Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
- Ruth L. and David S. Gottesman Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine Research, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - John S Condeelis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
- Department of Surgery, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
| | - Lalage M Wakefield
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Maja H Oktay
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
- Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
- Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
- Department of Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, USA.
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2
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Coste A, Karagiannis GS, Wang Y, Xue EA, Lin Y, Skobe M, Jones JG, Oktay MH, Condeelis JS, Entenberg D. Hematogenous Dissemination of Breast Cancer Cells From Lymph Nodes Is Mediated by Tumor MicroEnvironment of Metastasis Doorways. Front Oncol 2020; 10:571100. [PMID: 33194666 PMCID: PMC7649363 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.571100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In primary breast tumors, cancer cells hematogenously disseminate through doorways in the vasculature composed of three-cell complexes (known as Tumor MicroEnvironment of Metastasis) comprising a perivascular macrophage, a tumor cell overexpressing the actin-regulatory protein Mammalian Enabled (Mena), and an endothelial cell, all in direct physical contact. It has been previously shown that once tumor cells establish lymph node metastases in patients, TMEM doorways form in the metastatic tumor cell nests. However, it has not been established if such lymph node-TMEM doorways actively transit tumor cells into the peripheral circulation and on to tertiary sites. To address this question in this short report, we used a mouse model of lymph node metastasis to demonstrate that TMEM doorways: (1) exist in tumor-positive lymph nodes of mice, (2) are restricted to the blood vascular endothelium, (3) serve as a mechanism for further dissemination to peripheral sites such as to the lungs, and (4) their activity can be abrogated by a pharmaceutical intervention. Our data suggest that cancer cell dissemination via TMEM doorways is a common mechanism of breast cancer cell dissemination to distant sites and thus the pharmacological targeting of TMEM may be necessary, even after resection of the primary tumor, to suppress cancer cell dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anouchka Coste
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Surgery, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - George S Karagiannis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Integrated Imaging Program, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Yarong Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Integrated Imaging Program, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Emily A Xue
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Yu Lin
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Mihaela Skobe
- Department of Oncological Sciences and Tisch Cancer Center, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Joan G Jones
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Integrated Imaging Program, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Pathology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Maja H Oktay
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Integrated Imaging Program, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Pathology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - John S Condeelis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Department of Surgery, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Integrated Imaging Program, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - David Entenberg
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States.,Integrated Imaging Program, Einstein College of Medicine/Montefiore Medical Center, New York, NY, United States
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Sharma VP, Wang Y, Tang B, Karagiannis GS, Xue EA, Entenberg D, Borriello L, Coste A, Jones JG, Surve CR, Esposito D, Oktay MH, Wakefield LM, Condeelis JS. Abstract 372: Macrophage contact-dependent stemness induction and progressive CSC enrichment during metastatic dissemination in breast cancer. Cancer Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2020-372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background: Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play an important role during metastatic progression of breast cancer. However, little is known, at the single cell level, about the process of stemness induction in non-stem cells or the dynamic behavior of CSCs during hematogenous dissemination.
Methods: Here, we employed high-resolution intravital multiphoton microscopy with a SOX2/OCT4 responsive fluorescent biosensor for stemness to directly observe the induction of stemness in single non-stem cells and their evolution through the metastatic cascade in living animals using orthotopic breast cancer xenograft model. We confirmed our findings in vitro using tumor cell-macrophage co-culture assays.
Results: We report that, both in vitro and in vivo, direct physical contact with macrophages induces stemness in non-stem cancer cells via juxtacrine Notch-Jagged1 signaling. In vivo, macrophage depletion with clodronate treatment showed a significant decrease in stem cells. In vitro, using either the fate mapping of non-stem cells with or without macrophage contact, or the origin-mapping of stem cells to find whether they originated from non-stem cells or pre-existing stem cells, we found that there was four-fold increase in new CSC induction after direct macrophage contact. In contrast, we did not see any role of macrophages in the expansion of pre-existing CSCs, both in vivo and in vitro, indicating that macrophage contact-dependent stem induction is the primary mechanism of CSC generation.
Using immunohistochemical staining in fixed tissue and live imaging of primary tumors and lungs in mice using optical windows, we found that during the course of dissemination of tumor cells from the primary site, CSCs become progressively enriched in the tumor cell population as they approach dissemination doorways (known as TMEM, Tumor MicroEnvironment of Metastasis), intravasate, circulate and arrive at the lung. Association with and passage through TMEM doorways is the step that generates the greatest enrichment in CSCs (~ 60-fold). On arrival in the lung, CSCs represent more than 75% of the disseminated tumor cell population, greatly enriched compared with their representation in the bulk primary tumor of ~ 1%.
Conclusion: Overall, these data indicate, for the first time, that macrophages associated with TMEM induce CSCs and promote TMEM-mediated CSC intravasation and early metastatic seeding. Our results are consistent with the dramatic enrichment of cancer stem cell markers in association with TMEM in breast cancer patients (Kim et al 2020 AACR abstract) and support a strategy for anti-metastatic therapy.
Citation Format: Ved P. Sharma, Yarong Wang, Binwu Tang, George S. Karagiannis, Emily A. Xue, David Entenberg, Lucia Borriello, Anouchka Coste, Joan G. Jones, Chinmay R. Surve, Dominic Esposito, Maja H. Oktay, Lalage M. Wakefield, John S. Condeelis. Macrophage contact-dependent stemness induction and progressive CSC enrichment during metastatic dissemination in breast cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 372.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yarong Wang
- 1Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY
| | - Binwu Tang
- 2National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Dominic Esposito
- 3Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
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4
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Sharma VP, Wang Y, Tang B, Karagiannis GS, Xue EA, Entenberg D, Borriello L, Coste A, Surve CR, Esposito D, Oktay MH, Wakefield LM, Condeelis JS. Abstract 972: Direct observation in living tumors shows macrophage-dependent induction and dissemination of cancer stem cells in breast cancer. Cancer Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am2019-972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSCs) play an important role during metastatic progression of breast cancer. However, the in vivo properties and dynamic behavior of CSCs are not well understood. Here, we employed high-resolution intravital multiphoton microscopy using a SOX2/OCT4 responsive fluorescent stem cell biosensor to directly observe CSC dynamics in the living animal using an orthotopic breast cancer xenograft model. We report that CSCs constitute a minority population (1-3%) in the primary tumors, and display the slow-migratory, invasive phenotype that is specifically associated with disseminating tumor cell population. We also report, for the first time, that CSCs are preferentially localized in direct contact with macrophages near and in tumor microenvironment of metastasis (TMEM) sites, the macrophage-containing intravasation doorway for tumor cells and that CSCs metastasize to lung and are strikingly enriched in early lung metastatic colonies. This is explained by our observation that, in vitro and in vivo, direct physical contact with macrophages induces stemness in non-stem cancer cells via juxtacrine Notch-Jagged1 signaling. These data indicate for the first time that macrophages play an actively inductive role in the CSC niche and promote TMEM-mediated CSC intravasation and early metastatic seeding.
Citation Format: Ved P. Sharma, Yarong Wang, Binwu Tang, George S. Karagiannis, Emily A. Xue, David Entenberg, Lucia Borriello, Anouchka Coste, Chinmay R. Surve, Dominic Esposito, Maja H. Oktay, Lalage M. Wakefield, John S. Condeelis. Direct observation in living tumors shows macrophage-dependent induction and dissemination of cancer stem cells in breast cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2019; 2019 Mar 29-Apr 3; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2019;79(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 972.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yarong Wang
- 1Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY
| | - Binwu Tang
- 2National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Dominic Esposito
- 3Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD
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5
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Karagiannis GS, Pastoriza JM, Wang Y, Harney AS, Entenberg D, Pignatelli J, Sharma VP, Xue EA, Cheng E, D'Alfonso TM, Jones JG, Anampa J, Rohan TE, Sparano JA, Condeelis JS, Oktay MH. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy induces breast cancer metastasis through a TMEM-mediated mechanism. Sci Transl Med 2018; 9:9/397/eaan0026. [PMID: 28679654 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aan0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer cells disseminate through TIE2/MENACalc/MENAINV-dependent cancer cell intravasation sites, called tumor microenvironment of metastasis (TMEM), which are clinically validated as prognostic markers of metastasis in breast cancer patients. Using fixed tissue and intravital imaging of a PyMT murine model and patient-derived xenografts, we show that chemotherapy increases the density and activity of TMEM sites and Mena expression and promotes distant metastasis. Moreover, in the residual breast cancers of patients treated with neoadjuvant paclitaxel after doxorubicin plus cyclophosphamide, TMEM score and its mechanistically connected MENAINV isoform expression pattern were both increased, suggesting that chemotherapy, despite decreasing tumor size, increases the risk of metastatic dissemination. Chemotherapy-induced TMEM activity and cancer cell dissemination were reversed by either administration of the TIE2 inhibitor rebastinib or knockdown of the MENA gene. Our results indicate that TMEM score increases and MENA isoform expression pattern changes with chemotherapy and can be used in predicting prometastatic changes in response to chemotherapy. Furthermore, inhibitors of TMEM function may improve clinical benefits of chemotherapy in the neoadjuvant setting or in metastatic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- George S Karagiannis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA. .,Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jessica M Pastoriza
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Department of Surgery, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10467, USA
| | - Yarong Wang
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Allison S Harney
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Department of Radiology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - David Entenberg
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jeanine Pignatelli
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Ved P Sharma
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Emily A Xue
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Esther Cheng
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Timothy M D'Alfonso
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Joan G Jones
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Department of Pathology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10467, USA.,Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Jesus Anampa
- Department of Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10467, USA
| | - Thomas E Rohan
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Joseph A Sparano
- Department of Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10467, USA
| | - John S Condeelis
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA. .,Integrated Imaging Program, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Maja H Oktay
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA. .,Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.,Department of Pathology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10467, USA
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