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Dohle W, Jourdan FL, Menchon G, Prota AE, Foster PA, Mannion P, Hamel E, Thomas MP, Kasprzyk PG, Ferrandis E, Steinmetz MO, Leese MP, Potter BVL. Quinazolinone-Based Anticancer Agents: Synthesis, Antiproliferative SAR, Antitubulin Activity, and Tubulin Co-crystal Structure. J Med Chem 2018; 61:1031-1044. [PMID: 29227648 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Quinazolinone-based anticancer agents were designed, decorated with functional groups from a 2-methoxyestradiol-based microtubule disruptor series, incorporating the aryl sulfamate motif of steroid sulfatase (STS) inhibitors. The steroidal AB-ring system was mimicked, favoring conformations with an N-2 substituent occupying D-ring space. Evaluation against breast and prostate tumor cell lines identified 7b with DU-145 antiproliferative activity (GI50 300 nM). A preliminary structure-activity relationship afforded compounds (e.g., 7j GI50 50 nM) with activity exceeding that of the parent. Both 7b and 7j inhibit tubulin assembly in vitro and colchicine binding, and 7j was successfully co-crystallized with the αβ-tubulin heterodimer as the first of its class, its sulfamate group interacting positively at the colchicine binding site. Microtubule destabilization by 7j is likely achieved by preventing the curved-to-straight conformational transition in αβ-tubulin. Quinazolinone sulfamates surprisingly showed weak STS inhibition. Preliminary in vivo studies in a multiple myeloma xenograft model for 7b showed oral activity, confirming the promise of this template.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Dohle
- Medicinal Chemistry & Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford , Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3QT, U.K
| | - Fabrice L Jourdan
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath , Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Grégory Menchon
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut , 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Andrea E Prota
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut , 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Paul A Foster
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham , 2nd Floor IBR Tower, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.,Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners , Birmingham B15 2TH, U.K
| | - Pascoe Mannion
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham , 2nd Floor IBR Tower, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.,Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners , Birmingham B15 2TH, U.K
| | - Ernest Hamel
- Screening Technologies Branch, Developmental Therapeutics Program, Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute , Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Mark P Thomas
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath , Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | | | - Eric Ferrandis
- Institut de Recherche Henri Beaufour, IPSEN , 91966 Les Ulis Cedex, France
| | - Michel O Steinmetz
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Department of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut , 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Biozentrum , 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mathew P Leese
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath , Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Barry V L Potter
- Medicinal Chemistry & Drug Discovery, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford , Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3QT, U.K.,Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath , Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
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Stengel C, Newman SP, Day JM, Chander SK, Jourdan FL, Leese MP, Ferrandis E, Regis-Lydi S, Potter BVL, Reed MJ, Purohit A, Foster PA. In vivo and in vitro properties of STX2484: a novel non-steroidal anti-cancer compound active in taxane-resistant breast cancer. Br J Cancer 2014; 111:300-8. [PMID: 24960406 PMCID: PMC4102933 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2014.188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 03/04/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND STX2484 is a novel non-steroidal compound with potent anti-proliferative activity. These studies aimed to identify STX2484's mechanism of action, in vivo efficacy and activity in taxane-resistant breast cancer models. METHODS Effects of STX2484 and paclitaxel on proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis were assessed in vitro in drug-resistant (MCF-7(DOX)) and non-resistant cells (MCF-7(WT)). STX2484 efficacy in βIII tubulin overexpression in MCF-7 cells was also determined. Anti-angiogenic activity was quantified in vitro by a co-culture model and in vivo using a Matrigel plug assay. An MDA-MB-231 xenograft model was used to determine STX2484 efficacy in vivo. RESULTS STX2484 is a tubulin disruptor, which induces p53 expression, Bcl2 phosphorylation, caspase-3 cleavage, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. In addition, STX2484 is a potent anti-angiogenic agent in vitro and in vivo. In breast cancer xenografts, STX2484 (20 mg kg(-1) p.o.) suppressed tumour growth by 84% after 35 days of daily dosing, with limited toxicity. In contrast to paclitaxel, STX2484 efficacy was unchanged in two clinically relevant drug-resistant models. CONCLUSIONS STX2484 is an orally bioavailable microtubule-disrupting agent with in vivo anti-angiogenic activity and excellent in vivo efficacy with no apparent toxicity. Crucially, STX2484 has superior efficacy to paclitaxel in models of clinical drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Stengel
- 1] Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK [2] Cancer Institute, UCL, 72 Huntley Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - S P Newman
- Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - J M Day
- Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - S K Chander
- Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - F L Jourdan
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - M P Leese
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - E Ferrandis
- Systems Biology, IPSEN, 5 Avenue du Canada, Les Ulis 91966, France
| | - S Regis-Lydi
- Systems Biology, IPSEN, 5 Avenue du Canada, Les Ulis 91966, France
| | - B V L Potter
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - M J Reed
- Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - A Purohit
- Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - P A Foster
- 1] Oncology Drug Discovery Group, Section of Investigative Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK [2] Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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Dohle W, Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Chapman CJ, Hamel E, Ferrandis E, Potter BVL. Optimisation of tetrahydroisoquinoline-based chimeric microtubule disruptors. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:1783-93. [PMID: 24819406 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201402025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Tetrahydroisoquinoline (THIQ)-based "chimeric" microtubule disruptors were optimised through modification of the N-benzyl motif, in concert with changes at C3 and C7, resulting in the identification of compounds with improved in vitro antiproliferative activities (e.g. 15: GI50 20 nM in DU-145). The broad anticancer activity of these novel structures was confirmed in the NCI 60-cell line assay, with 12 e,f displaying MGM values in the 40 nM region. In addition, their profiles as inhibitors of tubulin polymerisation and colchicine binding to tubulin were confirmed. Compound 15, for example, inhibited tubulin polymerisation with an IC50 of 1.8 μM, close to that of the clinical drug combretastatin A-4, and also proved effective at blocking colchicine binding. Additionally, compound 20 b was identified as the only phenol in the series to date showing both better in vitro antiproliferative properties than its corresponding sulfamate and excellent antitubulin data (IC50=.6 μM). Compound 12 f was selected for in vivo evaluation at the NCI in the hollow fibre assay and showed very good activity and wide tissue distribution, illustrating the value of this template for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Dohle
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY (UK)
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Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Major MR, Dohle W, Thomas MP, Hamel E, Ferrandis E, Mahon MF, Newman SP, Purohit A, Potter BVL. Synthesis, anti-tubulin and antiproliferative SAR of steroidomimetic dihydroisoquinolinones. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:798-812. [PMID: 24596315 PMCID: PMC4114533 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201400017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A SAR translation strategy adopted for the discovery of tetrahydroisoquinolinone (THIQ)-based steroidomimetic microtubule disruptors has been extended to dihydroisoquinolinone (DHIQ)-based compounds. A steroid A,B-ring-mimicking DHIQ core was connected to methoxyaryl D-ring mimics through methylene, carbonyl, and sulfonyl linkers, and the resulting compounds were evaluated against two cancer cell lines. The carbonyl-linked DHIQs in particular exhibit significant in vitro antiproliferative activities (e.g., 6-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl)-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one (16 g): GI50 51 nm in DU-145 cells). The broad anticancer activity of DHIQ 16 g was confirmed in the NCI 60-cell line assay giving a mean activity of 33 nm. Furthermore, 6-hydroxy-2-(3,5-dimethoxybenzoyl)-7-methoxy-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one (16 f) and 16 g and their sulfamate derivatives 17 f and 17 g (2-(3,5-dimethoxybenzoyl)-7-methoxy-6-sulfamoyloxy-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one and 7-methoxy-2-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl)-6-sulfamoyloxy-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-1(2H)-one, respectively) show excellent activity against the polymerization of tubulin, close to that of the clinical combretastatin A-4, and bind competitively at the colchicine binding site of tubulin. Compounds 16 f and 17 f were also shown to demonstrate in vitro anti-angiogenic activity. Additionally, X-ray and computational analyses of 17 f reveal that electrostatic repulsion between the two adjacent carbonyl groups, through conformational biasing, dictates the adoption of a “steroid-like” conformation that may partially explain the excellent in vitro activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew P Leese
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY (UK)
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Dohle W, Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Major MR, Bai R, Hamel E, Ferrandis E, Kasprzyk PG, Fiore A, Newman SP, Purohit A, Potter BVL. Synthesis, antitubulin, and antiproliferative SAR of C3/C1-substituted tetrahydroisoquinolines. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:350-70. [PMID: 24436228 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The syntheses and antiproliferative activities of novel substituted tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives and their sulfamates are discussed. Biasing of conformational populations through substitution on the tetrahydroisoquinoline core at C1 and C3 has a profound effect on the antiproliferative activity against various cancer cell lines. The C3 methyl-substituted sulfamate (±)-7-methoxy-2-(3-methoxybenzyl)-3-methyl-6-sulfamoyloxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (6 b), for example, was found to be ∼10-fold more potent than the corresponding non-methylated compound 7-methoxy-2-(3-methoxybenzyl)-6-sulfamoyloxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (4 b) against DU-145 prostate cancer cells (GI50 values: 220 nM and 2.1 μM, respectively). Such compounds were also found to be active against a drug-resistant MCF breast cancer cell line. The position and nature of substitution of the N-benzyl group in the C3-substituted series was found to have a significant effect on activity. Whereas C1 methylation has little effect on activity, introduction of C1 phenyl and C3-gem-dimethyl substituents greatly decreases antiproliferative activity. The ability of these compounds to inhibit microtubule polymerisation and to bind tubulin in a competitive manner versus colchicine confirms the mechanism of action. The therapeutic potential of a representative compound was confirmed in an in vivo multiple myeloma xenograft study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Dohle
- Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY (UK)
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Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Major MR, Dohle W, Hamel E, Ferrandis E, Fiore A, Kasprzyk PG, Potter BVL. Tetrahydroisoquinolinone-based steroidomimetic and chimeric microtubule disruptors. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:85-108, 1. [PMID: 24124095 PMCID: PMC3877212 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A structure-activity relationship (SAR) translation strategy was used for the discovery of tetrahydroisoquinoline (THIQ)-based steroidomimetic and chimeric microtubule disruptors based upon a steroidal starting point. A steroid A,B-ring-mimicking THIQ core was connected to methoxyaryl D-ring ring mimics through methylene, carbonyl and sulfonyl linkers to afford a number of steroidomimetic hits (e.g., 7-methoxy-2-(3- methoxybenzyl)-6-sulfamoyloxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (20 c) GI₅₀=2.1 μM). Optimisation and control experiments demonstrate the complementary SAR of this series and the steroid derivatives that inspired its design. Linkage of the THIQ-based A,B-mimic with the trimethoxyaryl motif prevalent in colchicine site binding microtubule disruptors delivered a series of chimeric molecules whose activity (GI₅₀=40 nM) surpasses that of the parent steroid derivatives. Validation of this strategy was obtained from the excellent oral activity of 7-methoxy-6-sulfamoyloxy-2-(3,4,5-trimethoxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline relative to a benchmark steroidal bis- sulfamate in an in vivo model of multiple myeloma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew P. Leese
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY (UK)
| | - Fabrice L. Jourdan
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY (UK)
| | - Meriel R. Major
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY (UK)
| | - Wolfgang Dohle
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY (UK)
| | - Ernest Hamel
- Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702 (USA)
| | - Eric Ferrandis
- Institut de Recherche Henri Beaufour, 91966 Les Ulis Cedex (France)
| | - Ann Fiore
- IPSEN, 27 Maple St, Milford, MA (USA)
| | | | - Barry V. L. Potter
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY (UK)
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Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Major MR, Dohle W, Hamel E, Ferrandis E, Fiore A, Kasprzyk PG, Potter BVL. Cover Picture: Tetrahydroisoquinolinone-Based Steroidomimetic and Chimeric Microtubule Disruptors (ChemMedChem 1/2014). ChemMedChem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201390056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Ferrandis E, Regis-Lydi S, Kasprzyk PG, Fiore A, Newman SP, Stengel C, Reed MJ, Purohit A, Potter BVL. Abstract 756: Optimization of tetrahydroisoquinoline-based microtubule disruptors as anticancer agents. Cancer Res 2010. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.am10-756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
We outline the discovery and optimisation of new microtubule disruptors with in vivo anti-tumor activity. Translation of the SAR from a steroidal series of microtubule disruptors led us to identify a series of tetrahydroisoquinoline (THIQ) based systems which exhibit a similar activity profile. Of this new series, 2-(3′,4′,5′-Trimethoxybenzyl)-7-methoxy-6-O-sulfamoyl THIQ 1 proved especially potent in both in vitro (GI50 [DU-145] 297 nM) and in vivo experiments. Herein, we describe the results of optimisation at C-6 and C-7 of the THIQ core and assessment of other polymethoxylated N-benzyl systems.
Variations at the N-2 and C-6 positions were achieved by alkylation, esterification and etherification. Friedel Crafts acylation of C-7 and functional group interconversion allowed access to various C-7 alkyl and alkoxy derivatives. The various dimethoxybenzyl compounds proved similar in activity to the lead compound 2 (GI50 2.1 μM) in the N-mono-methoxybenzyl series while, apart from the 3′,4′,5′-trimethoxybenzyl compound 1, only 2′,4′,5′-trimethoxybenzyl substitution delivered sub-micromolar activity. Investigations of the effect of C-6 substitution proved more fruitful. In contrast to the SAR observed for 2 where the sulfamate group is essential for activity, the 6-OH, with the 6-O-acyl and 6-O-mesyl derivatives of 1 displayed similar or improved activity to the parent compound (GI50s range from 650 to 220 nM). The 6-O-methyl derivative, in contrast, proved completely inactive, highlighting the importance of a H-bond donor directly attached to C-6 or a H-bond acceptor projecting further out from this position. The most pronounced improvement in activity was obtained from exploration of C-7 substitution. In the 3′,4′,5′-trimethoxybenzyl series isosteric replacement of methoxy with ethyl delivered a 7-fold improvement in activity (3 GI50 41 nM). Intriguingly, the corresponding phenol proved significantly active suggesting different binding modes operate for the phenol and sulfamate derivatives since the H-bond acceptor properties of the C-7 substituent of the former are clearly important. Incorporation of a C-7 ethoxy group meanwhile proved detrimental for both sulfamate and phenol derivatives. The same transformations were made to 2, though no improvement in activity was obtained.
In order to establish the potential of these compounds as anti-tumor agents their activity in the RPMI-8226 multiple myeloma xenograft model was assessed. The >75% inhibition of tumor growth observed (3 p.o. 40 mg/kg, 28d) in this preliminary study augers well for the development of this class of anti-cancer agents.
Note: This abstract was not presented at the AACR 101st Annual Meeting 2010 because the presenter was unable to attend.
Citation Format: {Authors}. {Abstract title} [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 101st Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2010 Apr 17-21; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2010;70(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 756.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Ann Fiore
- 3IPSEN / Biomeasure, Inc, Milford, MA
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Leese MP, Jourdan FL, Gaukroger K, Mahon MF, Newman SP, Foster PA, Stengel C, Regis-Lydi S, Ferrandis E, Di Fiore A, De Simone G, Supuran CT, Purohit A, Reed MJ, Potter BVL. Structure-activity relationships of C-17 cyano-substituted estratrienes as anticancer agents. J Med Chem 2008; 51:1295-308. [PMID: 18260615 DOI: 10.1021/jm701319c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis, SAR, and preclinical evaluation of 17-cyanated 2-substituted estra-1,3,5(10)-trienes as anticancer agents are discussed. 2-Methoxy-17beta-cyanomethylestra-1,3,5(10)-trien-3-ol ( 14), but not the related 2-ethyl derivative 7, and the related 3- O-sulfamates 8 and 15 display potent antiproliferative effects (MCF-7 GI 50 300, 60 and 70 nM, respectively) against human cancer cells in vitro. Investigation of the SAR reveals that a sterically unhindered hydrogen bond acceptor attached to C-17 is most likely key to the enhanced activity. Compound 8 displayed significant in vitro antiangiogenic activity, and its ability to act as a microtubule disruptor was confirmed. Inhibitory activity of the sulfamate derivatives against steroid sulfatase and carbonic anhydrase II (hCAII) was also observed, and the interaction between 15 and hCAII was investigated by protein crystallography. The potential of these multimechanism anticancer agents was confirmed in vivo, with promising activity observed for both 14 and 15 in an athymic nude mouse MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer xenograft model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathew P Leese
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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