Pressure Effects on the 4f Electronic Structure of Light Lanthanides

Using the satellite structure of the Lγ_{1} line in nonresonant x-ray emission spectra, we probe the high-pressure evolution of the bare 4f signature of the early light lanthanides at ambient temperature. For Ce and Pr the satellite peak experiences a sudden reduction concurrent with their respective volume collapse (VC) transitions. These new experimental results are supported by calculations using state-of-the-art extended atomic structure codes for Ce and Pr, and also for Nd, which does not exhibit a VC. Our work suggests that changes to the 4f occupation are more consistently associated with evolution of the satellite than is the reduction of the 4f moment. Indeed, we show that in the case of Ce, mixing of a higher atomic angular momentum state, driven by the increased hybridization, acts to obscure the expected satellite reduction. These measurements emphasize the importance of a unified study of a full set of microscopic observables to obtain the most discerning test of the underlying, fundamental f-electron phenomena at high pressures.

A laboratory-based hard x-ray monochromator for high-resolution x-ray emission spectroscopy and x-ray absorption near edge structure measurements

We report the development of a laboratory-based Rowland-circle monochromator that incorporates a low power x-ray (bremsstrahlung) tube source, a spherically bent crystal analyzer, and an energy-resolving solid-state detector. This relatively inexpensive, introductory level instrument achieves 1-eV energy resolution for photon energies of ∼5 keV to ∼10 keV while also demonstrating a net efficiency previously seen only in laboratory monochromators having much coarser energy resolution. Despite the use of only a compact, air-cooled 10 W x-ray tube, we find count rates for nonresonant x-ray emission spectroscopy comparable to those achieved at monochromatized spectroscopy beamlines at synchrotron light sources. For x-ray absorption near edge structure, the monochromatized flux is small (due to the use of a low-powered x-ray generator) but still useful for routine transmission-mode studies of concentrated samples. These results indicate that upgrading to a standard commercial high-power line-focused x-ray tube or rotating anode x-ray generator would result in monochromatized fluxes of order 10(6)-10(7) photons/s with no loss in energy resolution. This work establishes core technical capabilities for a rejuvenation of laboratory-based hard x-ray spectroscopies that could have special relevance for contemporary research on catalytic or electrical energy storage systems using transition-metal, lanthanide, or noble-metal active species.

Observations of continuum depression in warm dense matter with x-ray Thomson scattering

Detailed measurements of the electron densities, temperatures, and ionization states of compressed CH shells approaching pressures of 50 Mbar are achieved with spectrally resolved x-ray scattering. Laser-produced 9 keV x-rays probe the plasma during the transient state of three-shock coalescence. High signal-to-noise x-ray scattering spectra show direct evidence of continuum depression in highly degenerate warm dense matter states with electron densities ne>1024  cm-3. The measured densities and temperatures agree well with radiation-hydrodynamic modeling when accounting for continuum lowering in calculations that employ detailed configuration accounting.

A versatile medium-resolution x-ray emission spectrometer for diamond anvil cell applications

We present design and performance details for a polycapillary-coupled x-ray spectrometer that provides very high collection efficiency at a moderate energy resolution suitable for many studies of nonresonant x-ray emission spectroscopy, especially for samples of heavy elements under high pressures. Using a single Bragg analyzer operating close to backscattering geometry so as to minimize the effect of the weak divergence of the quasicollimated exit beam from the polycapillary optic, this instrument can maintain a typical energy resolution of 5 eV over photon energies from 5 keV to 10 keV. We find dramatically improved count rates as compared to a traditional higher-resolution instrument based on a single spherically bent crystal analyzer.

A miniature X-ray emission spectrometer (miniXES) for high-pressure studies in a diamond anvil cell

Core-shell X-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) is a valuable complement to X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) techniques. However, XES in the hard X-ray regime is much less frequently employed than XAS, often as a consequence of the relative scarcity of XES instrumentation having energy resolutions comparable with the relevant core-hole lifetimes. To address this, a family of inexpensive and easily operated short-working-distance X-ray emission spectrometers has been developed. The use of computer-aided design and rapid prototype machining of plastics allows customization for various emission lines having energies from ∼3 keV to ∼10 keV. The specific instrument described here, based on a coarsely diced approximant of the Johansson optic, is intended to study volume collapse in Pr metal and compounds by observing the pressure dependence of the Pr Lα emission spectrum. The collection solid angle is ∼50 msr, roughly equivalent to that of six traditional spherically bent crystal analyzers. The miniature X-ray emission spectrometer (miniXES) methodology will help encourage the adoption and broad application of high-resolution XES capabilities at hard X-ray synchrotron facilities.

A plastic miniature x-ray emission spectrometer based on the cylindrical von Hamos geometry

We present a short working distance miniature x-ray emission spectrometer (miniXES) based on the cylindrical von Hamos geometry. We describe the general design principles for the spectrometer and detail a specific implementation that covers Kβ and valence level emission from Fe. Large spatial and angular access to the sample region provides compatibility with environmental chambers, microprobe, and pump/probe measurements. The primary spectrometer structure and optic is plastic, printed using a 3-dimensional rapid-prototype machine. The spectrometer is inexpensive to construct and is portable; it can be quickly set up at any focused beamline with a tunable narrow bandwidth monochromator. The sample clearance is over 27 mm, providing compatibility with a variety of environment chambers. An overview is also given of the calibration and data processing procedures, which are implemented by a multiplatform user-friendly software package. Finally, representative measurements are presented. Background levels are below the level of the Kβ(2, 5) valence emission, the weakest diagram line in the system, and photometric analysis of count rates finds that the instrument is performing at the theoretical limit.

Comparative study of the valence electronic excitations of N2 by inelastic x-ray and electron scattering

Bound-state, valence electronic excitation spectra of N2 are probed by nonresonant inelastic x-ray and electron scattering. Within usual theoretical treatments, dynamical structure factors derived from the two probes should be identical. However, we find strong disagreements outside the dipole scattering limit, even at high probe energies. This suggests an unexpectedly important contribution from intramolecular multiple scattering of the probe electron from core electrons or the nucleus. These effects should grow progressively stronger as the atomic number of the target species increases.

A short working distance multiple crystal x-ray spectrometer

For x-ray spot sizes of a few tens of microns or smaller, a millimeter-sized flat analyzer crystal placed approximately 1 cm from the sample will exhibit high energy resolution while subtending a collection solid angle comparable to that of a typical spherically bent crystal analyzer (SBCA) at much larger working distances. Based on this observation and a nonfocusing geometry for the analyzer optic, we have constructed and tested a short working distance (SWD) multicrystal x-ray spectrometer. This prototype instrument has a maximum effective collection solid angle of 0.14 sr, comparable to that of 17 SBCA at 1 m working distance. We find good agreement with prior work for measurements of the Mn Kbeta x-ray emission and resonant inelastic x-ray scattering for MnO, and also for measurements of the x-ray absorption near-edge structure for Dy metal using Lalpha(2) partial-fluorescence yield detection. We discuss future applications at third- and fourth-generation light sources. For concentrated samples, the extremely large collection angle of SWD spectrometers will permit collection of high-resolution x-ray emission spectra with a single pulse of the Linac Coherent Light Source. The range of applications of SWD spectrometers and traditional multi-SBCA instruments has some overlap, but also is significantly complementary.

A pressure cell for nonresonant inelastic x-ray scattering studies of gas phases

We report the design and performance of a gas-phase sample cell for measurements of momentum transfer (q) dependent nonresonant inelastic x-ray scattering (NRIXS). NRIXS measurements from He gas at 2 MPa (20 bars) readily demonstrate dipole-allowed and dipole-forbidden final states for two-electron excitations. Direct comparison of gas-phase NRIXS measurements with the corresponding nonresonant electron energy loss spectroscopy results (EELS) will be a valuable method for characterizing systematic errors in either technique for studies that require absolute normalization of the double differential cross section.

The local electronic structure of alpha-Li3N

New theoretical and experimental investigations of the occupied and unoccupied local electronic densities of states (DOS) are reported for alpha-Li(3)N. Band-structure and density-functional theory calculations confirm the absence of covalent bonding character. However, real-space full-multiple-scattering (RSFMS) calculations of the occupied local DOS find less extreme nominal valences than have previously been proposed. Nonresonant inelastic x-ray scattering, RSFMS calculations, and calculations based on the Bethe-Salpeter equation are used to characterize the unoccupied electronic final states local to both the Li and N sites. There is a good agreement between experiment and theory. Throughout the Li 1s near-edge region, both experiment and theory find strong similarities in the s-and p-type components of the unoccupied local final DOS projected onto an orbital angular momentum basis (l-DOS). An unexpected, significant correspondence exists between the near-edge spectra for the Li 1s and N 1s initial states. We argue that both spectra are sampling essentially the same final DOS due to the combination of long core-hole lifetimes, long photoelectron lifetimes, and the fact that orbital angular momentum is the same for all relevant initial states. Such considerations may be generally applicable for low atomic number compounds.

An extraction algorithm for core-level excitations in non-resonant inelastic X-ray scattering spectra

Non-resonant inelastic X-ray scattering of core electrons is a prominent tool for studying site-selective, i.e. momentum-transfer-dependent, shallow absorption edges of liquids and samples under extreme conditions. A bottleneck of the analysis of such spectra is the appropriate subtraction of the underlying background owing to valence and core electron excitations. This background exhibits a strong momentum-transfer dependence ranging from plasmon and particle-hole pair excitations to Compton scattering of core and valence electrons. In this work an algorithm to extract the absorption edges of interest from the superimposed background for a wide range of momentum transfers is presented and discussed for two examples, silicon and the compound silicondioxide.

Two-dimensional nucleation of ice from supercooled water

We report the temperature dependent nucleation rates of ice from single water drops supporting aliphatic alcohol Langmuir films. Analysis in the context of a classical theory of heterogeneous nucleation suggests that the critical nucleus is essentially a monolayer, and that the rate-limiting steps in these nucleation processes are therefore not merely influenced by, but instead dictated by, the physics of the water-alcohol interface. Consequently, reduced dimensionality may be much more important in heterogeneous nucleation than has previously been believed.

Granule-by-granule reconstruction of a sandpile from x-ray microtomography data

Mesoscale disordered materials are ubiquitous in industry and in the environment. Any fundamental understanding of the transport and mechanical properties of such materials must follow from a thorough understanding of their structure. However, in the overwhelming majority of cases, experimental characterization of such materials has been limited to first- and second-order structural correlation functions, i.e., the mean filling fraction and the structural autocorrelation function. We report here the successful combination of synchrotron x-ray microtomography and image processing to determine the full three-dimensional real-space structure of a model disordered material, a granular bed of relatively monodisperse glass spheres. Specifically, we determine the center location and the local connectivity of each granule. This complete knowledge of structure can be used to calculate otherwise inaccessible high-order correlation functions. We analyze nematic order parameters for contact bonds to characterize the geometric anisotropy or fabric induced by the sample boundary conditions. Away from the boundaries we find short-range bond orientational order exhibiting characteristics of the underlying polytetrahedral structure.