Haematological changes in African children who received short-term prophylaxis with nevirapine and zidovudine at birth

We assessed the safety of short-term antiretroviral prophylaxis to prevent mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV by monitoring haematological changes in children up to the age of 18 months. Babies of HIV-infected women were randomised at birth to receive a single dose of nevirapine (NVP) alone or with zidovudine (ZDV) twice daily for a week. Based on the time of presentation to the labour ward, mothers of these babies might or might not have received intrapartum NVP. Complete blood counts were performed at birth and at 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 months. Babies' HIV status was determined by HIV-1 RNA testing. A total of 1755 babies were included in the study. Age-specific mean haemoglobin levels and prevalence of anaemia (haemoglobin < 10 g/dL) were not significantly different in cases where only the babies received a single dose of NVP and cases where NVP was given to mother/infant pairs or additional ZDV to the baby. Among HIV-infected children compared with uninfected children, the age-specific frequency of anaemia was significantly greater, anaemia started earlier and recovery to normal levels was slower and prolonged. A reversible granulocytopenia was observed in all children between 1.5 and 3 months of age. HIV infection significantly increased the children's risk of death. Antiretroviral prophylaxis appeared to protect against anaemia and child death. Short regimens of antiretrovirals to prevent MTCT of HIV are not associated with long-term adverse haematological changes.

Group B Streptococcus and HIV infection in pregnant women, Malawi, 2008-2010

To determine whether an association exists between group B streptococcus carriage and HIV infection, we recruited 1,857 pregnant women (21.7% HIV positive) from Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi. Overall, group B streptococcus carriage was 21.2% and did not differ by HIV status. However, carriage was increased among HIV-positive women with higher CD4 counts.

Post-neonatal mortality, morbidity, and developmental outcome after ultrasound-dated preterm birth in rural Malawi: a community-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth is considered to be associated with an estimated 27% of neonatal deaths, the majority in resource-poor countries where rates of prematurity are high. There is no information on medium term outcomes after accurately determined preterm birth in such settings.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

This community-based stratified cohort study conducted between May-December 2006 in Southern Malawi followed up 840 post-neonatal infants born to mothers who had received antenatal antibiotic prophylaxis/placebo in an attempt to reduce rates of preterm birth (APPLe trial ISRCTN84023116). Gestational age at delivery was based on ultrasound measurement of fetal bi-parietal diameter in early-mid pregnancy. 247 infants born before 37 wk gestation and 593 term infants were assessed at 12, 18, or 24 months. We assessed survival (death), morbidity (reported by carer, admissions, out-patient attendance), growth (weight and height), and development (Ten Question Questionnaire [TQQ] and Malawi Developmental Assessment Tool [MDAT]). Preterm infants were at significantly greater risk of death (hazard ratio 1.79, 95% CI 1.09-2.95). Surviving preterm infants were more likely to be underweight (weight-for-age z score; p<0.001) or wasted (weight-for-length z score; p<0.01) with no effect of gestational age at delivery. Preterm infants more often screened positively for disability on the Ten Question Questionnaire (p = 0.002). They also had higher rates of developmental delay on the MDAT at 18 months (p = 0.009), with gestational age at delivery (p = 0.01) increasing this likelihood. Morbidity-visits to a health centre (93%) and admissions to hospital (22%)-was similar for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

During the first 2 years of life, infants who are born preterm in resource poor countries, continue to be at a disadvantage in terms of mortality, growth, and development. In addition to interventions in the immediate neonatal period, a refocus on early childhood is needed to improve outcomes for infants born preterm in low-income settings.

Acceptability and experience of supportive companionship during childbirth in Malawi

OBJECTIVE

To study the acceptability and experience of supportive companionship during childbirth by mothers, health professionals and supportive companions.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional surveys before and after introducing supportive companionship.

SETTING

Maternity facilities in Blantyre City, Malawi.

POPULATION

Mothers who had normal deliveries before discharge from hospital, health professionals in health facilities and women from the community, who had given birth before and had interest in providing or had provided support to fellow women during childbirth.

METHODS

Combined qualitative and quantitative methods.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Perceptions on labour companionship among participants.

RESULTS

The majority of supported women (99.5%), companions (96.6%) and health professionals (96%) found the intervention beneficial, mainly for psychological and physical support to the labouring woman and for providing assistance to healthcare providers. Some companions (39.3%) unwillingly accompanied the women they were supporting and 3.5% of companions mentioned that their presence in the labour ward was an opportunity for them to learn how to conduct deliveries.

CONCLUSION

Supportive companionship for women during childbirth is highly acceptable among mothers and health professionals, and the community in Malawi, but should be governed by clear guidelines to avoid potential harm to labouring women. Women require information regarding the need for a supportive companion and their expected role before they present at a health facility in labour. Such notification will provide an opportunity for the pregnant woman to identify someone of their choice who is ready and capable of safely taking up the role of a companion.

Patients' satisfaction with reproductive health services at Gogo Chatinkha Maternity Unit, Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi

Patient satisfaction is an individual's state of being content with the care provided in the health system. It is important for reproductive health care providers to get feedback from women regarding satisfaction with reproductive health services. There is a dearth of knowledge about patient satisfaction in Malawi.

AIM

The specific objective of the study was to determine the extent to which women are satisfied with the care they receive when they come to deliver at the Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital maternity unit.

METHODS

A cross sectional study of postpartum women using interviewer administered semi-structured questionnaires was conducted between November 2008 and May 2009. The questionnaires captured mainly quantitative data.

RESULTS

1562 women were interviewed. Most women were housewives (79%) who were referred from Health Centres within the city. Ninety five percent delivered a live baby. The majority of women (97.3%) were satisfied with the care they received from admission through labour and delivery and the immediate postpartum period. Most women cited doctors' and nurses' reviews (65%) as what they liked most about the care they received during their stay in the unit. Most women expected to receive efficient and definitive care. The women's knowledge on patient's rights was extremely low (16%) and equally very few women were offered an opportunity to give an opinion regarding their care by the doctors and nurses in the maternity unit.

CONCLUSION

Most women who deliver at the hospital are satisfied with the care offered. This satisfaction is mainly due to the frequent reviews of patients by nurses and doctors in the unit. There is a great need to educate both the population of women served and the health workers that serve them on patient's rights.

The APPLe study: a randomized, community-based, placebo-controlled trial of azithromycin for the prevention of preterm birth, with meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Premature birth is the major cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity in both high- and low-income countries. The causes of preterm labour are multiple but infection is important. We have previously described an unusually high incidence of preterm birth (20%) in an ultrasound-dated, rural, pregnant population in Southern Malawi with high burdens of infective morbidity. We have now studied the impact of routine prophylaxis with azithromycin as directly observed, single-dose therapy at two gestational windows to try to decrease the incidence of preterm birth.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

We randomized 2,297 pregnant women attending three rural and one peri-urban health centres in Southern Malawi to a placebo-controlled trial of oral azithromycin (1 g) given at 16-24 and 28-32 wk gestation. Gestational age was determined by ultrasound before 24 wk. Women and their infants were followed up until 6 wk post delivery. The primary outcome was incidence of preterm delivery, defined as <37 wk. Secondary outcomes were mean gestational age at delivery, perinatal mortality, birthweight, maternal malaria, and anaemia. Analysis was by intention to treat. There were no significant differences in outcome between the azithromycin group (n = 1,096) and the placebo group (n = 1,087) in respect of preterm birth (16.8% versus 17.4%), odds ratio (OR) 0.96, 95% confidence interval (0.76-1.21); mean gestational age at delivery (38.5 versus 38.4 weeks), mean difference 0.16 (-0.08 to 0.40); mean birthweight (3.03 versus 2.99 kg), mean difference 0.04 (-0.005 to 0.08); perinatal deaths (4.3% versus 5.0%), OR 0.85 (0.53-1.38); or maternal malarial parasitaemia (11.5% versus 10.1%), OR 1.11 (0.84-1.49) and anaemia (44.1% versus 41.3%) at 28-32 weeks, OR 1.07 (0.88-1.30). Meta-analysis of the primary outcome results with seven other studies of routine antibiotic prophylaxis in pregnancy (>6,200 pregnancies) shows no effect on preterm birth (relative risk 1.02, 95% confidence interval 0.86-1.22).

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides no support for the use of antibiotics as routine prophylaxis to prevent preterm birth in high risk populations; prevention of preterm birth requires alternative strategies.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN84023116

Intrapartum antibiotic exposure and early neonatal, morbidity, and mortality in Africa

BACKGROUND

Infants born to women who receive intrapartum antibiotics may have higher rates of infectious morbidity and mortality than unexposed infants.

OBJECTIVE

Our goal was to determine the association of maternal intrapartum antibiotics and early neonatal morbidity and mortality.

METHODS

We performed secondary analysis of data from a multisite randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of antibiotics to prevent chorioamnionitis-associated mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 and preterm birth in sub-Saharan Africa. Early neonatal morbidity and mortality were analyzed. In an intention-to-treat (ITT) analysis, infants born to women randomly assigned to antibiotics or placebo were compared. In addition, non-ITT analysis was performed because some women received nonstudy antibiotics for various clinical indications.

RESULTS

Overall, 2659 pregnant women were randomly assigned. Of these, 2466 HIV-1-infected and HIV-1-uninfected women delivered 2413 live born and 84 stillborn infants. In the ITT analysis, there were no significant associations between exposure to antibiotics and early neonatal outcomes. Non-ITT analyses showed more illness at birth (11.2% vs 8.6%, P = .03) and more admissions to the special care infant unit (12.6% vs 9.8%, P = .04) among infants exposed to maternal intrapartum antibiotics than among unexposed infants. Additional analyses revealed greater early neonatal morbidity and mortality among infants of mothers who received nonstudy antibiotics than of mothers who received study antibiotics.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no association between intrapartum exposure to antibiotics and early neonatal morbidity or mortality. The associations observed in non-ITT analyses are most likely the result of women with peripartum illnesses being more likely to receive nonstudy antibiotics.

Fertility intentions of HIV-1 infected and uninfected women in Malawi: a longitudinal study

This study aimed to determine changes in fertility intentions of HIV-1 infected and uninfected reproductive age women in Blantyre, Malawi. Participants were asked about their fertility intentions at baseline and at 3-month visits for 1 year. Time-to-event statistical models were used to determine factors associated with changes in fertility intentions. Overall, 842 HIV uninfected and 844 HIV infected women were enrolled. The hazard of changing from wanting no more children at baseline to wanting more children at follow-up was 61% lower among HIV infected women compared to HIV uninfected women (P < 0.01) after adjusting for other factors, while HIV infected women were approximately 3 times more likely to change to wanting no more children. The overall pregnancy rate after 12 months was 14.9 per 100 person-years and did not differ among 102 HIV uninfected and 100 infected women who became pregnant. HIV infection is a significant predictor of fertility intentions over time.

HIV-1 incidence among women of reproductive age in Malawi

The aim of this study was to determine HIV-1 incidence among women of reproductive age in Malawi. A prospective study design was followed. HIV-1 uninfected women were followed up for nine visits during a period of 12 months. At baseline, women received HIV-1 counselling and testing. At each visit, venous blood was collected for HIV-1 testing. Incidence rate for HIV-1 was estimated using person-years of follow up (PYFU). Risk factors for HIV acquisition were assessed using Cox proportional hazard models. A total of 842 HIV-1 negative women were enrolled in the study. Of these, 787 had subsequent HIV testing and 31 were found HIV-1 infected; an overall incidence rate of 4.51 (95% confidence interval: 2.96-6.06) per 100 PYFU was obtained. Young age, using hormonal injectable contraceptives and bacterial vaginosis were the main predictors of HIV acquisition. The incidence of HIV continues to be high among women in Malawi, and young women appear to be at higher risk.

Extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to reduce breast-milk HIV-1 transmission

BACKGROUND

Effective strategies are urgently needed to reduce mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) through breast-feeding in resource-limited settings.

METHODS

Women with HIV-1 infection who were breast-feeding infants were enrolled in a randomized, phase 3 trial in Blantyre, Malawi. At birth, the infants were randomly assigned to one of three regimens: single-dose nevirapine plus 1 week of zidovudine (control regimen) or the control regimen plus daily extended prophylaxis either with nevirapine (extended nevirapine) or with nevirapine plus zidovudine (extended dual prophylaxis) until the age of 14 weeks. Using Kaplan-Meier analyses, we assessed the risk of HIV-1 infection among infants who were HIV-1-negative on DNA polymerase-chain-reaction assay at birth.

RESULTS

Among 3016 infants in the study, the control group had consistently higher rates of HIV-1 infection from the age of 6 weeks through 18 months. At 9 months, the estimated rate of HIV-1 infection (the primary end point) was 10.6% in the control group, as compared with 5.2% in the extended-nevirapine group (P<0.001) and 6.4% in the extended-dual-prophylaxis group (P=0.002). There were no significant differences between the two extended-prophylaxis groups. The frequency of breast-feeding did not differ significantly among the study groups. Infants receiving extended dual prophylaxis had a significant increase in the number of adverse events (primarily neutropenia) that were deemed to be possibly related to a study drug.

CONCLUSIONS

Extended prophylaxis with nevirapine or with nevirapine and zidovudine for the first 14 weeks of life significantly reduced postnatal HIV-1 infection in 9-month-old infants. (ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00115648.)

Natural history and risk factors associated with early and established HIV type 1 infection among reproductive-age women in Malawi

BACKGROUND

Data evaluating the biological events and determinants of early human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection are limited in sub-Saharan Africa. We examined plasma viral levels and trends during early and established HIV-1 infection among reproductive-age women who participated in a randomized trial to treat genital tract infection in Malawi. We also assessed the association of injectable hormonal contraceptive use with HIV-1 infection.

METHODS

We studied 3 groups of women who were infected or uninfected with HIV-1: seroconverters, seroprevalent women, and seronegative women. Questionnaires and blood samples were collected at baseline and every 3 months for 1 year. The virus set point in seroconverters and levels and trends of viral load over time were determined. The associations of injectable hormonal contraceptive use with HIV-1 infection and viral load were assessed using conditional logistic regression and mixed-effect models, respectively.

RESULTS

In the original clinical trial, 844 women infected with HIV-1 and 842 women not infected with HIV-1 were enrolled. Of 31 women who experienced seroconversion during 12 months, 27 were matched with 54 seroprevalent and 54 seronegative women. The estimated median plasma virus set point was 4.45 log(10) copies/mL (interquartile range, 4.32-5.14 log(10) copies/mL). Injectable hormonal contraceptive use was significantly associated with HIV-1 seroconversion (adjusted odds ratio, 10.42; P = .03) but not with established HIV-1 infection. Among the seroconverters, a statistically significant interaction was found between the linear association of viral load and time of injectable hormonal contraceptive use (regression coefficient, -0.14; P = .02).

CONCLUSION

Knowledge of virus set point and trends of viral load in HIV-1 seroincident and seroprevalent asymptomatic women could assist in antiretroviral treatment management.

Late postnatal transmission of HIV-1 and associated factors

BACKGROUND

The present study was undertaken to determine the risk and timing of late postnatal transmission (LPT) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1).

METHODS

Breast-fed infants previously enrolled in 2 trials of antiretroviral prophylaxis were monitored in Malawi. Kaplan-Meier and proportional hazard models assessed cumulative incidence and association of factors with LPT.

RESULTS

Overall, 98 infants were HIV infected, and 1158 were uninfected. The cumulative risk of LPT at age 24 months was 9.68% (95% confidence interval, 7.80%-11.56%). The interval hazards at 1.5-6, 6-12, 12-18, and 18-24 months were 1.22%, 4.05%, 3.48%, and 1.27%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The risk of LPT beyond 6 months is substantial. Weaning at 6 months could prevent >85% of LPT.

Intermittent intravaginal antibiotic treatment of bacterial vaginosis in HIV-uninfected and -infected women: a randomized clinical trial

Objective:

Assess efficacy of intermittent intravaginal metronidazole gel treatment in reducing frequency of bacterial vaginosis (BV).

Design:

Randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial.

Setting:

Postnatal and family planning clinics of the Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital and two health centers in Blantyre, Malawi.

Participants:

Nonpregnant HIV-uninfected and -infected women.

Intervention:

Intravaginal metronidazole treatment and placebo gels provided at baseline and every 3 mo for 1 y.

Outcome measures:

Primary: Cross-sectional and longitudinal comparisons of BV frequency at baseline, 1 mo after product dispensation (post-treatment evaluation [PTE]), and every quarterly visit. Secondary: Effect of treatment on BV clearance and recurrence.

Results:

Baseline: 842 HIV-uninfected and 844 HIV-infected women were enrolled. The frequency of BV at baseline in treatment and placebo arms, respectively, was 45.9% and 46.8% among HIV-uninfected women, and 60.5% and 56.9% among HIV-infected women. Primary outcomes: At the PTEs the prevalence of BV was consistently lower in treatment than placebo arms irrespective of HIV status. The differences were statistically significant mainly in HIV-uninfected women. Prevalence of BV was also reduced over time in both treatment and placebo arms. In a multivariable analysis that controlled for other covariates, the effect of intravaginal metronidazole treatment gel compared with placebo was not substantial: adjusted relative risk (RR) 0.90, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.83–0.97 in HIV-uninfected women and adjusted RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.89–1.01 in HIV-infected women. Secondary outcomes: Intravaginal metronidazole treatment gel significantly increased BV clearance (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 1.34, 95% CI 1.07–1.67 among HIV-uninfected women and adjusted HR 1.29, 95% CI 1.06–1.58 among HIV-infected women) but was not associated with decreased BV recurrence. Safety: No serious adverse events were related to use of intravaginal gels.

Conclusion:

Intermittent microbicide treatment with intravaginal gels is an innovative approach that can reduce the frequency of vaginal infections such as BV.

Background: Bacterial vaginosis (BV) results from a change in the normal balance of bacteria in the vaginal tract, and is very common. In pregnant women, it is associated with poorer outcomes in pregnancy, and is also linked with HIV transmission (although it is not certain that BV actually increases the chance of getting HIV—just because these two occur together it does not necessarily follow that one causes the other). BV can be treated with metronidazole tablets, although these can cause gut symptoms and should not be taken repeatedly. The researchers wanted to carry out a multiclinic–based trial to find out whether a metronidazole gel applied intermittently to the vagina (for five nights every three months) would reduce the frequency of BV among women in Malawi. HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women, recruited from postnatal and family planning clinics, were randomized to receive either metronidazole gels, or equivalent placebo gels, every three months and were then followed up for 12 months. The primary outcome for the trial was the proportion of women with BV at each quarterly follow-up visit, and the researchers intended to compare this outcome between treatment arms at each visit and also to look at the overall changes over time among women receiving either metronidazole or placebo, looking separately at HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women.

What this trial shows: In total 1,686 women took part in the trial (842 not infected with HIV, and 844 infected with HIV). The proportion of HIV-uninfected women with BV dropped by around 20% over the course of the trial, both in women using metronidazole and in those using placebo. However, when comparing the proportion of HIV-uninfected women with BV between the two arms of the trial, there did not seem to be a consistent effect: differences were statistically significant at some time points and not others. Among HIV-infected women, there was also a drop over the course of the trial in the proportion of women with BV, irrespective of whether they used metronidazole or placebo. Again, when comparing the rate of BV among HIV-infected women between study arms (metronidazole versus placebo), the researchers did not see a consistent trend; differences were statistically significant at some time points but not others. Overall, when comparing metronidazole and placebo in an analysis that controlled for other factors, the metronidazole gel seemed to show a small effect in reduction of BV among HIV-uninfected women, but no obvious effect among HIV-infected women.

Strengths and limitations: Strengths in the design of this trial include the sample size, which was appropriate to detect an important effect of the metronidazole gel (versus placebo) had one existed, and the randomization and blinding procedures, which were designed to minimize the chance that the trialists or women being enrolled could anticipate to which arm of the trial they might be assigned. A key limitation of this study, as the researchers acknowledge, is the absence of a “no treatment” study arm. The frequency of BV dropped over the course of the trial in women using the placebo gel, raising the possibility that the placebo actually has some effect on bacteria in the vagina. However, a trial with a “no treatment” arm would pose its own problems, since trialists and participants would then not be fully blinded as to their treatment status.

Contribution to the evidence: This trial adds data on the efficacy of metronidazole gel when used intermittently, and among women in the community who may or may not actually have BV. Previous studies have evaluated treatment with metronidazole among women who already have symptoms or a diagnosis of BV. The findings of this trial rule out a substantial effect of metronidazole gel, as compared to placebo gel, in reducing the frequency of BV in this setting.

Fetal Fibronectin and Adverse Infant Outcomes in a Predominantly Human Immunodeficiency Virus–Infected African Population

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the relationship between fetal fibronectin and preterm birth and maternal-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in an African population of predominantly HIV-infected women.

METHODS

During a trial of second trimester and intrapartum antibiotics compared with placebo to prevent chorioamnionitis and reduce preterm birth and mother-to-child transmission of HIV, vaginal fluid was collected before antibiotics (20-24 weeks) and after treatment at 28 weeks and assayed for fetal fibronectin. Pregnancy outcomes of 2,353 women delivering liveborn singleton infants are presented.

RESULTS

Positive fetal fibronectin assays (50 ng/mL or more) were detected in 4.2% and 4.9% of samples at 20-24 weeks and 28 weeks. Positive fetal fibronectin assays at 28 weeks but not at 20-24 weeks were associated with lower mean birthweight (199 g, P<.001); lower mean gestational age (2 weeks, P<.001); six-fold higher rate of preterm birth less than 32 weeks (10.8% compared with 1.9%, odds ratio 6.3, 95% confidence interval 3.2-12.3) and a two-fold higher rate of preterm birth less than 37 weeks (38.7 compared with 22.0%, odds ratio 2.3, 95% confidence interval 1.5-3.3). Also, at 28 weeks, as the fetal fibronectin values increased, each of the outcomes worsened, and every test of trend was significant. An association between elevated fetal fibronectin levels and mother-to-child transmission of HIV was present at 20 to 24 weeks but not at 28 weeks. Antibiotic treatment at 20 to 24 weeks was not associated with fetal fibronectin levels at 28 weeks.

CONCLUSION

In a population of predominantly HIV- infected African women, fetal fibronectin concentrations at 28 but not at 20-24 weeks were associated with increased risk of preterm birth. The associations were stronger for early preterm birth and when fetal fibronectin levels were higher. High levels of fetal fibronectin were positively associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV at 20 -24 but not at 28 weeks. Antibiotic treatment did not influence fetal fibronectin levels.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

www.clinicalTrials.gov, NCT00021671

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

I.

'I don't want all my babies to go to the grave': perceptions of preterm birth in Southern Malawi

OBJECTIVE

to investigate perceptions of preterm birth, infections in pregnancy and perinatal mortality among women, men and health-care providers in Namitambo, Southern Malawi.

DESIGN

a qualitative study using focus-group discussions, critical incidence narrative and key informant interviews. The framework approach to qualitative analysis was used.

SETTING

Namitambo, a rural area in southern Malawi.

PARTICIPANTS

women who have experienced preterm delivery, groups of mothers, fathers and grandmothers, health-care providers, traditional birth attendants and healers.

FINDINGS

four key inter-related themes grounded in community interpretative frameworks emerged: (1) community conceptualisations of preterm birth (the different terminologies used); (2) perceived causes of preterm birth (i.e. both 'modern' and 'traditional; illnesses, violence, witchcraft, ideas relating to impurity, heavy work, inadequate food and inappropriate use of medicine); (3) perceived strategies to prevent preterm birth (i.e. using formal health services, treatment for sexually transmitted infections, using condoms and stopping violence); and (4) barriers to realising these strategies, such as lack of food, money and women's autonomy in health seeking.

KEY CONCLUSIONS

similarities and differences exist in understanding between healthcare providers and the community. Additional dialogue and action is needed within the health sector and community to address the problem of preterm births. This includes strategies to enable health-care providers and community members to reflect on their perceptions and practices (e.g. through action research and interactive drama); identify and build on areas of common concern (i.e. poor pregnancy outcome) and enter into partnerships with non-formal providers. Action is also needed beyond the health sector (e.g. in campaigns to reduce gender-based violence).

Correlates of syphilis seroreactivity among pregnant women: the HIVNET 024 Trial in Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this cross-sectional study were to determine correlates of syphilis seroprevalence among HIV-infected and -uninfected antenatal attendees in an African multisite clinical trial, and to improve strategies for maternal syphilis prevention.

RESULTS

A total of 2,270 (86%) women were HIV-infected and 366 (14%) were HIV-uninfected. One hundred seventy-five (6.6%) were syphilis-seropositive (7.3% among HIV-infected and 2.6% HIV-uninfected women). Statistically significant correlates included geographic site (odds ratio [OR] = 4.5, Blantyre; OR = 3.2, Lilongwe; OR = 9.0, Lusaka vs. Dar es Salaam referent); HIV infection (OR = 3.3); age 20 to 24 years (OR = 2.5); being divorced, widowed, or separated (OR = 2.9); genital ulcer treatment in the last year (OR = 2.9); history of stillbirth (OR = 2.8, one stillbirth; OR = 4.3, 2-5 stillbirths); and history of preterm delivery (OR = 2.7, one preterm delivery).

CONCLUSION

Many women without identified risk factors were syphilis-seropositive. Younger HIV-infected women were at highest risk. Universal integrated antenatal HIV and syphilis screening and treatment is essential in sub-Saharan African settings.

The impact of breastfeeding on the health of HIV-positive mothers and their children in sub-Saharan Africa

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the impact of breastfeeding by women infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 on their morbidity and risk of mortality and on the mortality of their children.

METHODS

We analysed longitudinal data from two previous randomized clinical trials of mother-to-child transmission of HIV conducted between April 2000 and March 2003 in the Republic of Malawi, Africa. Mothers infected with HIV, and their newborns, were enrolled at the time of their child's birth; they then returned for follow-up visits when the child was aged 1 week, 6-8 weeks and then 3, 6, 9, 15, 18, 21 and 24 months. Patterns of breastfeeding (classified as exclusive, mixed or no breastfeeding), maternal morbidity and mortality, and mortality among their children were assessed at each visit. Descriptive and multivariate analyses were performed to determine the association between breastfeeding and maternal and infant outcomes.

FINDINGS

A total of 2000 women infected with HIV were enrolled in the original studies. During the 2 years after birth, 44 (2.2%) mothers and 310 (15.5%) children died. (Multiple births were excluded.) The median duration of breastfeeding was 18 months (interquartile range (IQR)=9.0-22.5), exclusive breastfeeding 2 months (IQR=2-3) and mixed feeding 12 months (IQR=6-18). Breastfeeding patterns were not significantly associated with maternal mortality or morbidity after adjusting for maternal viral load and other covariates. Breastfeeding was associated with reduced mortality among infants and children: the adjusted hazard ratio for overall breastfeeding was 0.44 (95% confidence interval (CI)=0.28-0.70), for mixed feeding 0.45 (95% CI=0.28-0.71) and for exclusive breastfeeding 0.40 (95% CI=0.22-0.72). These protective effects were seen both in infants who were infected with HIV and those who were not.

CONCLUSION

Breastfeeding by women infected with HIV was not associated with mortality or morbidity; it was associated with highly significant reductions in mortality among their children.

A phase III clinical trial of antibiotics to reduce chorioamnionitis-related perinatal HIV-1 transmission

OBJECTIVE

A multisite study was conducted in Africa to assess the efficacy of antibiotics to reduce mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV-1.

DESIGN

A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, phase III clinical trial.

METHODS

HIV-1-infected women were randomly assigned at 20-24 weeks' gestation to receive either antibiotics (metronidazole plus erythromycin antenatally and metronidazole plus ampicillin intrapartum) or placebo. Maternal study procedures were performed at 20-24, 26-30, and 36 weeks antenatally, and at labor/delivery. Infants were seen at birth, 4-6 weeks, and 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. The primary efficacy endpoints were overall infant HIV-1 infection and HIV-1-free survival at 4-6 weeks. All women and infants received single-dose nevirapine prophylaxis in this study.

RESULTS

A total of 1510 live-born infants were included in the primary analysis. The proportions of HIV-1-infected infants at birth were similar (antibiotics 7.1%; placebo 8.3%; P = 0.41). Likewise, there were no statistically significant differences at 4-6 weeks in the overall risk of MTCT of HIV-1 (antibiotics 16.2%; placebo 15.8%; P = 0.89) or HIV-1-free survival (79.4% in each study arm). Post-randomization, the proportion of women with bacterial vaginosis at the second antenatal visit was significantly lower in the antibiotics arm compared with the placebo arm (23.8 versus 39.7%; P < 0.001), but the frequency of histological chorioamnionitis was not different (antibiotics 36.9%; placebo 39.7%; P = 0.30). Adverse events in mothers and their infants did not differ by randomization arm.

CONCLUSION

This simple antepartum and peripartum antibiotic regimen did not reduce the risk of MTCT of HIV-1.

Safety, Acceptability, and Potential Efficacy of a Topical Penile Microbicide Wipe

Innovative, low-cost, and acceptable measures are needed to reduce sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV. Use of a topical microbicide wipe for penile cleaning before and after sex might be effective in preventing STIs. However, evaluation of this simple method has not been done. Two studies were conducted in Malawi to determine the safety, acceptability, and potential efficacy of a benzalkonium chloride topical penile microbicide wipe. The first study was a phase 1 dose-escalating clinical trial among low-risk circumcised or uncircumcised HIV-negative men. The second study was a pilot before-after efficacy study among uncircumcised HIV-negative or -positive men. In the first study 24 circumcised and 27 uncircumcised men were enrolled. During the entire study period, 18 adverse events (AEs) were reported, and 3 AEs were confirmed by physical examination. Acceptability concerns did not increase with dose escalation, and adherence to use of the wipe ranged from 89%-95%. In the second study, 27 men were enrolled. Gram stain and culture tests showed significant reductions in frequency of several organisms after use of the wipe, including STI-associated bacteria. This penile wipe is safe, acceptable, and can decrease the frequency of penile colonization with microorganisms. The clinical relevance remains to be determined in larger clinical trials.

Gender differences in perinatal HIV acquisition among African infants

OBJECTIVE

We investigated gender-specific risks of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) at birth and at 6 to 8 weeks among infants born to HIV-infected African women.

DESIGN

Follow-up study of infants enrolled in 2 randomized, phase III, clinical trials to prevent MTCT, conducted in Blantyre, Malawi, in southeast Africa.

METHODS

Infants were enrolled at birth and monitored postnatally, and their HIV status was assessed at birth and at 6 to 8 weeks (assessment beyond 6-8 weeks is ongoing). Statistical analyses were stratified according to gender, and comparisons were made with descriptive, univariate, and multivariate statistical tests. MTCT was estimated at birth and at 6 to 8 weeks among infants who were not infected at birth.

RESULTS

Overall, 966 boys and 998 girls were enrolled. The rate of HIV transmission at birth was 9.5% (187 of 1964 infants). However, at birth significantly more girls (12.6%) than boys (6.3%) were infected with HIV. This association remained significant after controlling for maternal viral load and other factors. Among infants who were uninfected at birth, 8.7% (135 of 1554 infants) acquired HIV by 6 to 8 weeks; of these infants, more girls acquired HIV (10.0%), compared with boys (7.4%).

CONCLUSIONS

Female infants may be more susceptible to HIV infection before birth and continuing after birth. Alternatively, in utero mortality rates of HIV-infected male infants may be disproportionately higher and thus more HIV-infected female infants are born. In areas of sub-Saharan Africa, where HIV infection rates are high among women of reproductive age, the magnitude of the gender transmission differences observed in this study could have clinical, preventive, and demographic implications.

Nevirapine and zidovudine at birth to reduce perinatal transmission of HIV in an African setting: a randomized controlled trial

CONTEXT

Antenatal counseling and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing are not universal in Africa; thus, women often present in labor with unknown HIV status without receiving the HIVNET 012 nevirapine (NVP) regimen (a single oral dose of NVP to the mother at the start of labor and to the infant within 72 hours of birth).

OBJECTIVE

To determine risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV when either standard use of NVP alone or in combination with zidovudine (ZDV) was administered to infants of women tested at delivery.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

A randomized, open-label, phase 3 trial conducted between April 1, 2000, and March 15, 2003, at 6 clinics in Blantyre, Malawi, Africa. The trial included all infants born to 894 women who were HIV positive, received NVP intrapartum, and were previously antiretroviral treatment-naive. Infants were randomly assigned to NVP (n = 448) and NVP plus ZDV (n = 446). Infants were enrolled at birth, observed at 6 to 8 weeks, and followed up through 3 to 18 months. The HIV status of 90% of all infants was established at 6 to 8 weeks.

INTERVENTION

Mothers received a 200-mg single oral dose of NVP intrapartum and infants received either 2-mg/kg oral dose of NVP or NVP (same dose) plus 4 mg/kg of ZDV twice per day for a week.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

HIV infection of infant at birth and 6 to 8 weeks, and adverse events.

RESULTS

The mother-to-child transmission of HIV at birth was 8.1% (36/445) in infants administered NVP only and 10.1% (45/444) in those administered NVP plus ZDV (P =.30). A life table estimate of transmission at 6 to 8 weeks was 14.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 10.7%-17.4%) in infants who received NVP and 16.3% (95% CI, 12.7%-19.8%) in those who received NVP plus ZDV (P =.36). For infants not infected at birth and retested at 6 to 8 weeks, transmission was 6.5% (23/353) in those who received NVP only and 6.9% (25/363) in those who received NVP plus ZDV (P =.88). Almost all infants (99%-100%) were breastfed at 1 week and 6 to 8 weeks. Grades 3 and 4 adverse events were comparable; 4.9% (22/448) and 5.4% (24/446) in infants receiving NVP only and NVP plus ZDV, respectively (P =.76).

CONCLUSIONS

The frequency of mother-to-child HIV transmission at 6 to 8 weeks in our 2 study groups was comparable with that observed for other perinatal HIV intervention studies among breastfeeding women in Africa. The safety of the regimen containing neonatal ZDV was similar to that of a standard NVP regimen.

Leptin levels in the obese African parturient

Prolactin, HCG and oestrogen are reported to have a role in regulating serum leptin levels and therefore adiposity in pregnancy. The aim of this study was to determine serum leptin levels during pregnancy in African women, and was conducted in the Antenatal Clinic, King Edward VIII Hospital, Durban, South Africa. Eighty-two obese and non-obese women were studied. Demographic details and anthropometric measurements were recorded, and serum leptin levels determined by radio-immunoassay in all women. Age, parity and gestational age showed a weak correlation with leptin levels. Weight (4=0.6); body mass index (r=0.5), and the circumference of midarm (r=0.4), waist (4-0.6, hip (5=0.5) and thigh correlated positively with leptin values. Serum leptin values in African pregnant women are not dissimilar to that of studies in other racial groups.