Genomic characterization of Lumpy Skin Disease virus (LSDV) from India: Circulation of Kenyan-like LSDV strains with unique kelch-like proteins

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an economically important poxviral disease endemic to Asia, Europe, and Africa. Recently, LSD has spread to naïve countries, including India, China, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Thailand. Here, we describe the complete genomic characterization of LSDV from India, LSDV-WB/IND/19 isolated from an LSD affected calf in 2019 determined by Illumina next-generation sequencing (NGS). The LSDV-WB/IND/19 has a genome size of 150,969 bp encoding 156 putative ORFs. Phylogenetic analysis based on complete genome sequence suggested that LSDV-WB/IND/19 is closely related to Kenyan LSDV strains with 10-12 variants with non-synonymous changes confined to LSD_019, LSD_049, LSD_089, LSD_094, LSD_096, LSD_140, and LSD_144 genes. In contrast to complete kelch-like proteins in Kenyan LSDV strains, LSDV-WB/IND/19 LSD_019 and LSD_144 genes were found to encode truncated versions (019a, 019b, and 144a, 144b). LSD_019a and LSD_019b proteins of LSDV-WB/IND/19 resemble that of wild-type LSDV strains based on SNPs and the C-terminal part of LSD_019b except for deletion at K229, whereas the LSD_144a and LSD_144b proteins resemble that of Kenyan LSDV strains based on SNPs, however, C-terminal part of LSD_144a resembles that of vaccine-associated LSDV strains due to premature truncation. The NGS findings were confirmed by Sanger sequencing of these genes in Vero cell isolate as well as in the original skin scab along with similar findings in another Indian LSDV from scab specimen. LSD_019 and LSD_144 genes are thought to modulate virulence and host range in capripoxviruses. This study demonstrates the circulation of unique LSDV strains in India and highlights the importance of constant monitoring of the molecular evolution of LSDV and associated factors in the region in light of the emergence of recombinant LSDV strains.

An improved visual closed tube Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for rapid identification of orf virus in sheep and goats

The orf virus (ORFV) is an epitheliotropic virus causing a highly contagious skin disease mainly in sheep and goats. Several diagnostics including molecular tools like Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay are available to detect ORFV in affected species. However, the carry-over contamination associated with LAMP as open tube format prevents the assay applicability as point of care test in field diagnostic settings. In this study, the B2L gene based LAMP assay was optimized in a closed tube format using hydroxynaphthol blue (HNB) and calcein as pre-addition dyes and it has shown a clear positive and negative signal at 60 °C using 4 and 5 mM concentrations of MgSO4 respectively for these dyes. Optimitimzed assay that could reveal the result within one hour is highly specific and senstive with a limit of detection at 12.5 femtogram of viral genomic DNA or ~85 virus genome equivalent. This improved method prevented the cross-contamination of future LAMP reactions in the laboratory without compromising diagnostic sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) when compared to open tube system. This closed tube LAMP method has potential to act as a simple visual detection assay for the rapid and specific diagnosis of ORFV in sheep and goats.

Pulsating Hydromagnetic Flow of Chemically Reactive Oldroyd-B Nanofluid in a Channel with Brownian Motion, Thermophoresis, and Joule Heating

In the present study, the magnetohydrodynamic pulsating flow of chemically reacting Oldroyd-B nanoliquid via channel with the impressions of Ohmic heating, radiative heat and viscous dissipation is studied. The ruling PDEs (partial differential equations) are changed into ODEs (Ordinary differential equations) by utilizing the perturbation procedure and numerically deciphered by adopting the 4th order Runge-Kutta approach with the aid of the shooting process. The novelty of the current work is to inspect the pulsating flow of Oldroyd-B nanoliquid via channel in the occurrence of an applied magnetic field by deploying the Buongiorno nanofluid model. The application of the proposed physical model is energy production, heating and cooling processes, thermoelectric devices, bio-medical applications like brain tumours, cancer treatment, drug targeting. Detailed analysis on the impacts of several pertinent parameters for velocity, temperature, nanoparticles concentration, rates of heat and mass transfer is done. The outcomes predict that the velocity of nanoliquid is improved with augmenting frequency parameter while it is reduced with acceleration in Hartmann number. The temperature rises with an improvement of thermophoresis, viscous dissipation, and Brownian motion while it falls for a given rise in Hartmann number and thermal radiation. Further, the nanoparticle concentration rises with an increasing Brownian motion while it falls over rising chemical reaction, thermophoresis, and Lewis number.

Long-term protective immunity to goatpox in goats after a single immunization with a live attenuated goatpox vaccine

In this study, the duration of immunity following a single-dose vaccination using an attenuated live goatpox vaccine (GTPV/Uttarkashi/1978 strain) was evaluated in goatpox-seronegative goats for 52 months. Long-term immunity was evaluated by clinical protection upon virulent virus challenge and serum neutralization assay applied to serum samples. The rise in the level of GTPV-specific antibodies was found to reach a maximum at 21 days post-vaccination, and these antibodies were maintained for 1 to 2 years after immunization, with a steady decline. Upon virulent virus challenge at 12, 24, 42, and 52 months post-vaccination, protection in all the vaccinated animals was evident (100%), whereas, the control animals developed severe clinical disease. This is the first time that the long-term immunity of a live goatpox vaccine has been investigated up to 52 months after vaccination in goats by virulent virus challenge and demonstration of serum neutralization titres. This vaccine has immense potential for controlling and eradicating goatpox from an enzootic region.

The complete genome sequence of Indian sheeppox vaccine virus and comparative analysis with other capripoxviruses

Sheeppox virus (SPPV) is responsible for a significant economic loss to sheep husbandry in enzootic regions of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia including the Indian subcontinent. In this study, we present the complete genome sequence of SPPV vaccine strain SPPV-Srin38/00 from India determined by next-generation sequencing (NGS) using Illumina technology. The attenuated Srinagar vaccine strain of SPPV (SPPV-Srin38/00) was developed by serial passaging the virus initially in lamb testes (LT) cells followed by Vero cell line. The SPPV-Srin38/00 virus has a genome size of 150, 103 bp, which encodes for 147 functional putative genes and consists of a central coding region flanked by two identical 2353 bp inverted terminal repeats (ITRs). Comparative phylogenetic analysis based on complete genome sequences of Capripoxviruses formed three distinct groups each for SPPV, GTPV, and LSDV with clustering of SPPV-Srin38/00 strain with SPPV-A strain. Nine ORFs of SPPV-Srin38/00 namely SPPV-Srin_002/SPPV-Srin_155, SPPV-Srin_004/SPPV-Srin_153, SPPV-Srin_009, SPPV-Srin_013, SPPV-Srin_026, SPPV-Srin_132, and SPPV-Srin_136 were found to be fragmented as compared to LSDV, whereas only one ORF (such as SPPV-Srin_136) was found to be fragmented as compared to GTPV. SPPV genomes, including the SPPV-Srin38/00 strain, shared 99.78-99.98% intraspecies nucleotide identity, indicating that SPPV strains have extremely low genetic diversity. The strain shared 96.80-97.08% and 97.11-97.61% nt identity with GTPV and LSDV strains, respectively. Its ORFs 016, 021, 022, 130 and 138 are the least identical ORFs among three species of the genus Capripoxvirus with 72.5-93% aa identity to GTPV and LSDV strains and may be potentially used for differentiation of CaPV species. This study may contribute to a better understanding of the epidemiology and evolution of capripoxviruses as well as the development of specific detection methods, better expression vectors, and vaccines with improved safety and efficacy.

397 Seasonal Variation in Acute Cholecystitis; An Analysis to Predict Resources Allocation

Background

Acute cholecystitis accounts for 20% of Emergency General Surgical admissions. The concept of seasonal variation is still a developing concept in surgical literature. Whether acute cholecystitis also follows a seasonal trend remains to be established.

Aim

Given the struggle healthcare system has been facing towards resource and staff allocation to deliver best possible patient care, we thought this may be a step forward to predict North Wales demand of resources seasonally and make appropriate arrangements ahead of time.

Method

We performed a retrospective analysis of patients across North Wales who had a discharging diagnosis of acute cholecystitis from January 2010 to December 2019. Chi-square goodness-of-fit test was used to analyse seasonality of acute cholecystitis adjusting for variation in number of days between seasons. The number of days for seasons were taken as 92, 92, 91, and 90.25 for spring, summer, fall, and winter, respectively.

Results

Overall, 4100 patients presented to the three hospitals across North Wales with acute cholecystitis during the study period. The frequency of hospital admissions varied between months (minimum February n = 302, maximum July n = 373) and seasons (minimum winter n = 971, maximum spring n = 1067). After applying chi-square goodness-of-fit test to check significant seasonality, we did not find any significant seasonal variation in acute cholecystitis (p-value = 0.262).

Conclusions

Our data failed to show any significant seasonal variation in patients presenting with acute cholecystitis in North Wales. We recommend prospective collection of data at national level to validate our results.

Chromium contamination in groundwater and Sobol sensitivity model based human health risk evaluation from leather tanning industrial region of South India

The present investigation was conducted to find the possible chromium contamination in groundwater and the related health risks in a leather industrial region of south India using Sobol sensitivity modeling. Thirty-five groundwater samples were sampled from the field sites and were analyzed for pH, TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), EC (Electrical Conductivity), F^- (Fluoride), NO₃^- (Nitrate) and Cr (Chromium). The concentration of nitrate varied from 3 to 81 mg/L with a mean of 48.6 mg/L. About 57% (n = 20) of the wells surpassed the drinkable limit (45 mg/L) for NO₃^- as per World Health Organization (WHO). The fluoride ion ranged from 0.1 to 2.7 mg/L with a mean of 1.5 mg/L. Around 51% (n = 18) of the samples crossed the recommended limit of WHO for F^- (1.5 mg/L). The chromium varied from 0.01 to 0.19 mg/L in groundwater with a mean of 0.1 mg/L. About 66% (n = 23) of the samples overshoot the permissible limit of WHO standards (0.05 mg/L) for Cr. The spatial distribution map of chromium in the groundwater showed that 271.76 km² area is under risk. Based on total hazard index (THI), 66%, 46%, and 43% of the groundwater samples surpassed the allowable limit (THI > 1) for children, women and men, correspondingly. Children pose severe health risks than women and men in this region. Using Sobol sensitivity indices, three different categories of risk effects were assessed: first order effect (FOE), total effect (TE) and second order effect (SOE). In the oral sensitivity model, concentration of Cr (C_w) in water and ingestion rate (IR) had the dominant role, whereas in the dermal model, skin surface area (SA) and contact fraction by skin (F) had vital role in addition to the concentration (C_w). Further, the outcome of this study insists the responsibilities of industrial, municipal and agricultural sectors to keep the environment pollution free and to ensure the supply of potable water to the people.

Impact of precipitation disparity on groundwater fluctuation in a semi-arid region (Vellore district) of southern India using geospatial techniques

In the present study, impact of precipitation disparity on groundwater level fluctuation was carried out in Vellore district, Tamil Nadu, India, using geospatial techniques. There are five rain gauge stations in the study area in which three rain gauge stations, namely Alangayam, Jolarpettai and Pernampet, receive more precipitation when compared with the average annual precipitation of Tamil Nadu state (920 mm). The other two stations, namely Madanur and Natrampalli, receive less than 920 mm of precipitation annually. The overall average annual precipitation of the study area is 913.6 mm. More than 100 mm precipitation is received in all the five rain gauge stations during southwest (SW) and northeast (NE) monsoon seasons. The maximum monthly precipitation is usually recorded during the month of November and the minimum precipitation is recorded during June. The post-monsoon precipitation is around 10.8 mm, which is almost negligible in the study area. The contribution of precipitation by various seasons is in the following sequence: Southwest monsoon > Northeast monsoon > Pre-monsoon > Post-monsoon. The spatial disparity study indicates that the intensity of average annual, pre-monsoon and post-monsoon precipitations increase towards west in the study area. The intensity of precipitation is more in the northern part during SW monsoon season, whereas the intensity is more in the southern part during NE monsoon season. The spatial disparity analysis of groundwater fluctuation shows that the depth of groundwater (below ground level) increases towards west during all the monsoon seasons. The minimum, mean and maximum depths of occurrence of groundwater in this region are, respectively, 1.6, 9.6 and 21.15 m. Declining trend in the regional groundwater level is observed from December to June because of less precipitation during non-monsoon season. However, the monsoon (both SW and NE monsoon) precipitation recharges the groundwater from June to December to reach the maximum in the month of December.

Evaluation of chromium in vegetables and groundwater aptness for crops from an industrial (leather tanning) sector of South India

The main objective of the present study is evaluation of groundwater aptness for crops and chromium concentration in vegetables from an industrial (leather tanning) sector of South India using geospatial techniques. Seventy groundwater samples were collected from the open and tube wells during November 2017, February 2018, May 2018 and September 2018 to represent northeast (NE) monsoon (October-December), post-monsoon (winter) (January-February), pre-monsoon (summer) (March-May) and southwest (SW) monsoon (June-September) seasons, respectively. In addition, vegetables were also collected during the above-mentioned seasons from the market to assess the level of chromium content in them. All the groundwater samples were tested in the chemical laboratory using the American Public Health Association norms for various physicochemical parameters, viz. TDS, pH, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate, nitrate, fluoride and chromium. Northeast and southwest monsoon season samples mostly represented 'high to very high saline' and 'low alkaline' categories of irrigation water. However, post- and pre-monsoon samples represented 'high to very high saline' and 'low to medium alkaline' categories. 'High saline and low alkaline' water could be used for irrigation in all types of soil with less problem of exchangeable sodium. However, 'very high saline' water should not be applied for the crops having poor salt tolerance and soils having poor internal drainage. The concentration of chromium in groundwater and vegetables was within the permissible limits for human intake prescribed by the World Health Organization standards.

Optimization of lead removal in exhausting Manilkara zapota based activated carbon: application of response surface methodology

The present study demonstrates the removal of lead ion from aqueous solution by the adsorption process using Manilkara zapota tree wood-based activated carbon (MZTWAC) as an adsorbent. The MZTWAC was characterized using a scanning electron microscope and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. XRD analysis was carried on MZTWAC. Batch adsorption studies were designed and performed to evaluate the adsorption property of MZTWAC for the removal of lead from an aqueous solution based on the central composite design with response surface methodology. The experiments were focused on the individual and combined effects of process parameters, namely, lead concentration, pH and adsorbent dose on the uptake of lead from aqueous solution. A quadratic polynomial equation was established between the adsorption capacity of the activated carbon and the parameters influencing the adsorption with a coefficient of determination R ² = 0.9792. The analysis of variance gauged the significance of process parameters and the optimization of process variables was attained by desirability function. There was a noticeable indication of the strong connotation of lead adsorption with Langmuir (R ²= 0.9911) and Freundlich (R ²= 0.8368) isotherm models. The D-R isotherm model indicated that physisorption occurred in the adsorption of lead by MZTWAC. The pseudo-second-order adsorption kinetic model (R ²= 0.9973) perfectly fitted into the present study.

Comparative sequence and structural analysis of the ORF095 gene, a vaccinia virus A4L homolog of capripoxvirus in sheep and goats

Sheeppox and goatpox are important transboundary animal viral diseases of sheep and goats caused by sheeppox virus (SPPV) and goatpox virus (GTPV), respectively, of the genus Capripoxvirus, family Poxviridae. Among the proteins encoded by the capripoxvirus (CaPV) genome, ORF095 (vaccinia virus A4L homolog) is an immunodominant virion core protein that plays a pivotal role in virus assembly and morphogenesis. In the present study, sequence analysis of the ORF095 genes of 27 SPPV and GTPV isolates or field samples from different geographical regions of India was performed, and structure was prediction was done by homology modeling. A multiple sequence alignment of different CaPV isolates revealed that CaPV-A4L is highly conserved, with several species-specific signature residues, namely A93, A216, A315, G136 and G146 in GTPV, G47, A63, A168 and A276 in SPPV, and G48 and C98 in lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). Phylogenetically, the CaPV isolates were separated into three major clusters, GTPV, SPPV and LSDV, based on the complete coding sequence of the CaPV-A4L gene. Genus-specific clustering of poxviruses was observed in phylogenetic analysis based on A4L protein homologs of chordopoxviruses. A secondary structure prediction showed the presence of six α-helices and one β-sheet as well as some coils. The signature residues identified here are potentially useful for genotyping, and the predicted characteristics of the CaPV-A4L protein make it an ideal candidate for use as an immunogenic or diagnostic antigen for the development of immunoassays in  the sero-evaluation of CaPV in target hosts.

Strategies for smoking cessation (pharmacologic intervention versus enhanced motivation vs. standard motivation) in TB patients under treatment in the RNTCP, India - A cluster - Randomized trial

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis burden is still high and smoking prevalence among males has increased in India. It is found that increased morbidity, mortality and relapse among TB smokers.

METHOD

Setting: Patients from two Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program Centres of Tamilnadu form the study population.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effectiveness of Bupropion therapy along with standard counselling versus enhanced counseling versus standard counseling for smoking cessation among TB patients.

STUDY DESIGN

Cluster randomized effectiveness trial.

PROCEDURE

Patients from each of the thirty-six Designated Microscopic Centres were randomly allocated to receive one of the three interventions using cluster randomization. Smoking cessation was assessed by self-reporting and confirmed by Carbon monoxide(CO) monitors, done at three-time points and TB treatment outcome at the end of ATT.

RESULTS

Out of 517 male patients enrolled to the study, the smoking status is available only to 381 subjects. The proportion of patients who have quit smoking in drug, enhanced and standard arms at the end of treatment was 67%, 83% and 52% (P= < 0.001). There was no statistical significance in response to TB treatment between those who quit and those who did not (Favourable response 99.2% vs 97.6%).

CONCLUSION

Both enhanced counselling arm and drug arm are effective strategies for smoking cessation among TB patients and their implementation in the TB programs are recommended.

Circulation of orf viruses containing the NZ7-like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-E) gene type in India

Orf, a poxviral skin infection of small ruminants is caused by orf virus (ORFV) of the genus Parapoxvirus of the Poxviridae family. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an important virulence factor that is responsible for proliferative lesions in parapoxviral infections. VEGF gene shows high intra- and inter-species variability. Two variants of VEGF have been described globally in ORFV, viz. NZ2- and NZ7-like. In the present study, ORFV isolates of different geographic regions of India were analysed on the basis of the VEGF gene. Indian ORFV isolates showed 95.7-100 % nucleotide (nt) and 78.4-99.3 % amino acid (aa) identity with each other, except ORFV-Assam/LK/14 and ORFV-Meghalaya/03 which shared 85.1-88.35 % and 79.1-81.8 % identity, at nt and aa levels, respectively with other Indian ORFV isolates. All Indian ORFVs under the study demonstrated 83.5-99.1 % nt and 80.5-97.9 % aa identity with NZ7-like VEGF as compared to 41.2-44.8 % nt and 30.7-38.4 % aa identity with NZ2-like VEGF on comparison with global ORFV strains. Phylogenetic analysis based on the VEGF gene showed two clusters of ORFV in which the Indian ORFVs clustered with NZ7-like VEGF from global ORFV strains, mostly from China. Despite the considerable variation, VEGF protein from Indian ORFV strains showed conserved VEGF homology domain with eight cysteine residues. Homology modeling of Indian ORFV strains predicted the presence of extended Loop 3 similar to NZ7-like VEGF. Therefore, the present study showed the circulation of ORFV strains with comparatively less variable NZ7-like VEGF in India which implicates its importance in the epidemiology of ORFV infections in the country.

Genetic studies of terminal regions of vaccine and field isolates of capripoxviruses

Sheeppox and goatpox are two of the most important diseases associated with significant economic loss and impact on animal trade. In spite of the use of vaccines, outbreaks are being reported on several occasions. Therefore, deciphering the host specificity and virulence of sheeppox virus (SPPV) and goatpox virus (GTPV) is important in developing effective vaccines. It is opined that genes located in the terminal regions play a major role in determining host range and/or virulence. In the present study, nine isolates (6 GTPV and 3 SPPV; included both vaccine and virulent viruses) were genetically characterized by targeting 11 genes (7 host-range and 4 virulence genes) which are located in the terminal regions of capripoxviruses. In the genetic analyses, it was observed that there are several nucleotide and amino acid signatures which are specific for either SPPV or GTPV. However, surprisingly, none of the 11 genes could be able to differentiate the vaccine and field viruses of GTPV and SPPV. Our study indicates that the genes of the terminal regions may have a role in determining the host-specificity but the involvemet in determinatin of virulence/attenuation is not certain at least for the isolates used in the current study. Therefore, it is likely that some other genes located in terminal/central regions may also play a role in determination of virulence and pathogenesis which needs to be confirmed by whole-genome sequencing of several vaccine and virulent viruses.

Poxviral E3L ortholog (Viral Interferon resistance gene) of orf viruses of sheep and goats indicates species-specific clustering with heterogeneity among parapoxviruses

Orf is a contagious disease posing a serious threat to animal and human health. E3L is one of the evolutionarily acquired immunomodulatory proteins present in orf virus (ORFV) and is responsible for conferring resistance to interferons among poxviruses. Genetic analysis of ORFV isolates of different geographical regions including Indian subcontinent targeting viral interferon resistance (VIR) gene (a homolog of vaccinia virus E3L gene) revealed a high percentage of identity among themselves and other ORFV isolates at both nt and aa levels as compared to low identity among parapoxviruses (PPVs). Phylogenetic analysis showed species-specific clustering among PPVs along with sub-clusters based on host species of origin among ORFVs infecting sheep and goats. Conserved amino acids in N-terminal Z-DNA binding domain and C-terminal ds RNA binding domain of VIR proteins of PPVs corresponding to ORFV VIR positions namely N37, Y41, P57, and W59 (necessary for Z-DNA binding) and E116, F127, F141, and K160 (necessary for dsRNA binding) were found. Further, the predicted protein characteristics and homology model of VIR protein of ORFV showed high structural conservation among poxviruses. This study on E3L genetic analysis of ORFV isolates may provide a better understanding of the molecular epidemiology of circulating strains in India and neighboring countries. Also, E3L deleted or mutated ORFV may be an as vaccine candidate and/or compounds blocking E3L may prove as an effective method for treating broad spectrum poxviral infections, suggesting a wider application in control of poxvirus infections.

Goatpox outbreak at a high altitude goat farm of Mizoram: possibility of wild life spill over to domestic goat population

In this study, pox-like outbreaks in goat population was investigated that occurred in a high altitude goat farm located in Mizoram, a hilly state of North eastern India. The outbreak initially involved the serows, an wild animal belonging to the family Bovidae, subfamily Caprinae and genus Capricornis, the state animal of Mizoram. Later, the disease affected the domestic goat population. The disease was diagnosed on the basis of gross lesions and PCR amplification of partial P32 gene of capripox virus. The virus was isolated in vero cells. The full length P32 gene was sequenced and phylogenetic tree was constructed. It was revealed that the capripox virus isolated from the outbreak was closely related to the Chinese strain of goatpox virus at both amino acid and nucleotide level. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report on isolation and characterization of capripoxvirus from north eastern region of India.

Sequence analysis of haemagglutinin gene of camelpox viruses shows deletion leading to frameshift: Circulation of diverse clusters among camelpox viruses

Orthopoxviruses (OPVs) have broad host range infecting a variety of species along with gene-specific determinants. Several genes including haemagglutinin (HA) are used for differentiation of OPVs. Among poxviruses, OPVs are sole members encoding HA protein as part of extracellular enveloped virion membrane. Camelpox virus (CMLV) causes an important contagious disease affecting mainly young camels, endemic to Indian subcontinent, Africa and the Middle East. This study describes the sequence features and phylogenetic analysis of HA gene (homologue of VACV A56R) of Indian CMLV isolates. Comparative analysis of CMLV HA gene revealed conserved nature within CMLVs but considerable variability was observed between various species of OPVs. Most Indian CMLV isolates showed 99.5%-100% and 96.3%-100% identity, at nucleotide (nt) and amino acid (aa) levels respectively, among themselves and with CMLV-M96 strain. Importantly, Indian CMLV strains along with CMLV-M96 showed deletion of seven nucleotides resulting in frameshift mutation at C-terminus of HA protein. Phylogenetic analysis displayed distinct clustering among CMLVs which might point to the circulation of diverse CMLV strains in nature. Despite different host specificity of OPVs, comparative sequence analysis of HA protein showed highly conserved N-terminal Ig V-set functional domain with tandem repeats. Understanding of molecular diversity of CMLVs and structural domains of HA protein will help in the elucidation of molecular mechanisms for immune evasion and design of novel antivirals for OPVs.

Molecular evidence and phylogenetic analysis of orf virus isolates from outbreaks in Tripura state of North-East India

This study describes the first confirmed report of contagious ecthyma in Black Bengal goats from Tripura state, a North-Eastern state of India situated at the Indo-Bangladesh border. Outbreaks were characterized by the high rates of morbidity (58-67%), low mortality (8-10%) and case fatality (11-15%). The etiology of the outbreaks was confirmed as orf virus (ORFV) by standard virological/serological and molecular techniques including sequence analysis of B2L, a major envelop protein gene of genus Parapoxvirus. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis based on B2L gene of ORFV isolates from Tripura revealed that they were closely related to each other and also to other Indian isolates, in particular to ORFV-Shahjahanpur 82/04 isolate from North India. They revealed several specific nucleotide/amino acid substitutions, namely G299A (G100D), G660A, C705T, C795T (N267D) and G872A (R291H) which may be of notable epidemiological significance. This report necessitates the systematic investigation of orf outbreaks in susceptible populations including wild species particularly at transboundary regions by use of rapid diagnostics to control the infection by deploying an effective vaccine/therapeutics and better managemental practices.

Genetic analysis of L1R myristoylated protein of Capripoxviruses reveals structural homogeneity among poxviruses

Sheeppox virus (SPPV) and goatpox virus (GTPV) are members of the genus Capripoxvirus (CaPV) of the family Poxviridae. CaPVs are responsible for important contagious diseases of small ruminants that are enzootic to the Indian sub-continent, Central and Northern Africa and the Middle East. In the present study, the sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the L1R gene of sixteen CaPV isolates (seven SPPV and nine GTPV) from India were performed along with 3D homology modeling of the L1R protein. L1R is a myristoylated protein responsible for virion assembly and being present on intracellular mature virion (IMV) surface, it is also a potent target for eliciting neutralizing antibodies. Sequence analysis of CaPV L1R gene revealed an ORF of 738bp with >99% and >96% identity within species and between species, respectively, at both nucleotide as well as amino acid levels. Phylogenetic analysis displayed distinct clusters of members of genus Capripoxvirus, as GTPV, SPPV and LSDV. L1R at the protein level showed various species-specific signature residues that may be useful for future grouping or genotyping of CaPV members. CaPV L1R was predicted to possess myristoylation motif GAAASIQTTVNTLNEKI and a potential N-glycosylation site at amino acid residue 50 (Asn). Despite of different host specificity in poxviruses, comparative sequence analysis of L1R proteins revealed highly conserved nature with presence of myristoylation motif (GXXXS) and six cysteine residues forming three disulfide bonds among all poxviruses. The conserved and immunogenic nature of the CaPV L1R gene may prove to be a potential candidate/target for developing molecular diagnostics including recombinant protein based assays and prophylactics for the control of CaPV diseases in tropical countries like India.

Seroprevalence of Capripoxvirus infection in sheep and goats among different agro-climatic zones of Odisha, India

Aim:

The study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of antibodies to Capripoxviruses among small ruminants of Odisha, India.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 500 random serum samples collected from 214 sheep and 286 goats across 10 agro-climatic zones of Odisha, were screened using whole virus antigen-based indirect ELISA for antibodies against Capripoxviruses. Results were analyzed by suitable statistical methods.

Results:

Screening of 500 serum samples showed seropositivity of 8.88% and 31.47% in sheep and goats, respectively, for Capripoxviruses. The prevalence rate according to agro-climatic zone ranged from 0% (North Eastern coastal plain zone) to 48.57% (North central plateau zone) for goat pox, and 0% (Western undulating zone and North central plateau) to 22.22% (South Eastern ghat zone) for sheep pox. The difference in prevalence rates among the various agro-climatic zones was statistically significant (p<0.05) for goats, but not for sheep. Antibody prevalence rates among various districts were recorded to be the highest in Jagatsinghpur (30%) for sheep pox and Dhenkanal (80%) for goat pox.

Conclusions:

The study revealed serological evidence of Capripoxvirus infection in sheep and goat populations in the study area, in the absence of vaccination. Systematic investigation, monitoring, and reporting of outbreaks are necessary to devise control strategies.

A Case of Organo-Axial Gastric Volvulus Following Laparoscopic Fundoplication: a Case Report

Organo-axial gastric volvulus is a rare postoperative complication of stomach surgeries. A case is presented in which a 43-year-old patient developed acute gastric volvulus 14 months after a laparoscopic fundoplication, diagnosed by preoperative CT scan, and treated by reduction of the volvulus, closing the gap in the pars flaccida, and a sham gastro-jejunostomy, all done laparoscopically. This is being published to highlight one of the rare complications of gastric surgery, which can be treated successfully with the laparoscope.

Comparative efficacy of chemical stabilizers on the thermostabilization of a novel live attenuated buffalopox vaccine

In the present investigation, the thermostability of a live attenuated buffalopox vaccine prepared with an indigenous baffalopox virus isolate (BPXV Vij/96) and freeze-dried under conventional lyophilizing conditions is described. Three different stabilizer combinations like LS (lactalbumin hydralysate + sucrose), LHT (lactalbumin hydralysate + Trehalose dihydrate) and TAA (Trehalose dihydrate + l- Alanine + l-Histidine) were used to prepare the vaccine. The study indicated that the LS stabilizer was found to be the stabilizer of choice followed by LHT and TAA for buffalopox vaccine at all temperatures studied. The presence of stabilizers has beneficial influence in preserving the keeping quality of the vaccine. Further, among the diluents used to reconstitute the freeze-dried buffalopox vaccine, double distilled water, 0.85% normal saline solution and phosphate buffer saline were the choice of diluents in that order. However, 1M MgSO₄ did not perform well at higher temperatures. Investigation suggests for using LS as a stabilizer for freeze-drying and any of the three diluents except 1MgSO₄ for reconstitution of buffalopox vaccine.

Configuration Study of Hybrid Electric Power Pack for Tracked Combat Vehicles

<p>In recent years, there is growing interest in hybridisation of military vehicles due to the features and advantages offered by the technology. Generally, the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is propelled by a combination of electric motors and internal combustion engine (ICE). Hybrid electric combat vehicles, when compared with conventional vehicles, have the advantages of improved fuel efficiency and drivability due to optimal operation of ICE, regenerative braking and silent operation capability. Limitations related to key technologies such as compact electric motors/generators, power electronics and energy storage systems that are required to operate under extreme environmental conditions pose challenges to the development of hybrid electric power pack. Technical challenges of HEV technologies considering futuristic applications of combat vehicles is described. The configuration specification of hybrid electric power train architecture suited to deliver high automotive performance and power demands for infantry combat vehicles (ICV) is also discussed.</p>

Co-administration of recombinant major envelope proteins (rA27L and rH3L) of buffalopox virus provides enhanced immunogenicity and protective efficacy in animal models

Buffalopox virus (BPXV) and other vaccinia-like viruses (VLVs) are causing an emerging/re-emerging zoonosis affecting buffaloes, cattle and humans in India and other countries. A27L and H3L are immuno-dominant major envelope proteins of intracellular mature virion (IMV) of orthopoxviruses (OPVs) and are highly conserved with an ability to elicit neutralizing antibodies. In the present study, two recombinant proteins namely; rA27L (₂₁S to E₁₁₀; ∼30 kDa) and rH3L(₁M to I₂₈₀; ∼50 kDa) of BPXV-Vij/96 produced from Escherichia coli were used in vaccine formulation. A combined recombinant subunit vaccine comprising rA27L and rH3L antigens (10 μg of each) was used for active immunization of adult mice (20μg/dose/mice) with or without adjuvant (FCA/FIA) by intramuscular route. Immune responses revealed a gradual increase in antigen specific serum IgG as well as neutralizing antibody titers measured by using indirect-ELISA and serum neutralization test (SNT) respectively, which were higher as compared to that elicited by individual antigens. Suckling mice passively administered with combined anti-A27L and anti-H3L sera showed a complete (100%) pre-exposure protection upon challenge with virulent BPXV. Conclusively, this study highlights the potential utility of rA27L and rH3L proteins as safer candidate prophylactic antigens in combined recombinant subunit vaccine for buffalopox as well as passive protective efficacy of combined sera in employing better pre-exposure protection against virulent BPXV.

Development of reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid detection of bluetongue viruses

A single-step reverse transcription loop mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay targeting NS1 - a highly conserved gene among BTV serotypes was optimized and validated with seven serotypes: BTV-1, BTV-2, BTV-9, BTV-10, BTV-16, BTV-21 and BTV-23. The relative sensitivity of the assay was 0.3 TCID50 and no cross reactivity could be observed with foot and mouth disease, peste-des-petits-ruminants, goatpox, sheeppox and orf viruses. The established assay was also assessed by screening of clinical samples and the result is comparable with conventional RT-PCR. The RT-LAMP assay described here could be an additional tool to the existing assays for diagnosis/surveillance of BTV.

Development and comparative evaluation of loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for simple visual detection of orf virus in sheep and goats

A loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay targeting DNA Pol gene was optimized and evaluated for the rapid detection of orf virus in clinical samples. The LAMP assay was found to be specific and sensitive. The detection rate of LAMP (89.3%) was better than PCR (67.9%) and comparable to real-time PCR (91.1%) in clinical samples by gel electrophoresis and visual detection methods. This LAMP assay is simple and does not rely upon any special equipment and could be employed in clinical diagnosis and epidemiological survey of orf infection.

Evaluation of thermo-stability of bluetongue virus recombinant VP7 antigen in indirect ELISA

This study shows the thermo-stability of lyophilized and purified recombinant VP7 bluetongue virus (BTV) protein in the presence of two sugar stabilizers (trehalose and mannitol) at different temperature. Truncated VP7 protein purified by nickel affinity column was lyophilized in the presence of trehalose and mannitol at 60 mM final concentration and then exposed to different temperature like 4, 25, 37 and 45 °C for various periods like 5 months, 7 weeks, 7 days and 48 h, respectively. After thermal treatment, the reactivity of the protein was evaluated in indirect ELISA. At 4 and 25 °C, the protein was stable up to 5 months and 7 weeks, respectively, irrespective of stabilizers used. At 37 °C, it was stable up to 3 days with both the stabilizers, after which it lost its stability and reactivity. At 45 °C, the protein was stable up to 30 and 24 h with trehalose and mannitol stabilizers, respectively. Both stabilizers found suitable for stability of the protein. However, trehalose appeared to have better stabilizing effect, particularly at higher temperatures than the mannitol. Trehalose could be used as stabilizer for freeze-drying the recombinant VP7 protein if an indirect ELISA kit based on the purified rVP7 protein is supplied to different laboratories of the country for detection of BTV antibody in sheep.

Detection of subclinical peste des petits ruminants virus infection in experimental cattle

The present study was undertaken to investigate the possible involvement of cattle in the epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) as subclinical carriers. Cattle were exposed experimentally to PPR virus (PPRV) infection or placed in contact with PPR infected goats. Clinical samples including heparinized/EDTA blood, plasma, peripheral blood monocyte cells (PBMCs) and clotted blood (for serum) were collected periodically from 21 days post infection (dpi) to 397 dpi (21, 45, 50, 57, 65, 95, 111, 119, 148, 190, 203 and 397 dpi) and tested for PPRV antigen, nucleic acid and antibody. Exposed cattle seroconverted and maintained PPRV specific haemagglutinin antibodies and detectable PPRV antigen/nucleic acid in blood, plasma and PBMCs from 21 to 397 dpi. PPRV was recovered from blood and PBMC collected from experimental animals at 21 dpi, initially in B95a cells and then adapted to Vero cells. The study indicated that PPRV can infect cattle subclinically and PPRV antigen/nucleic acid persist in cattle for at least 397 days.

Protective immune response of live attenuated thermo-adapted peste des petits ruminants vaccine in goats

Virulent isolate of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) of Indian origin (PPRV Jhansi 2003) initially adapted in Vero cells was further propagated in thermo-adapted (Ta) Vero cells grown at 40 °C for attaining thermo-adaption and attenuation of virus for development of Ta vaccine against PPR in goats and sheep. The virus was attenuated up to 50 passages in Ta Vero cells, at which, the virus was found sterile, innocuous in mice and guinea pigs and safe in seronegative goats and sheep. The developed vaccine was tested for its immunogenicity in goats and sheep by subcutaneous inoculation of 100 TCID50 (0.1 field dose), 10(3) TCID50 (one field dose) and 10(5) TCID50 (100 field doses) of the attenuated virus along with controls as per OIE described protocols for PPR vaccine testing and were assessed for PPRV-specific antibodies 7-28 days post vaccination (dpv) by PPR competitive ELISA and serum neutralization tests. The PPRV antibodies were detected in all immunized goats and sheep and goats were protective when challenged with virulent PPRV at 28th dpv along with controls for potency testing of the vaccine. The attenuated vaccine did not induce any adverse reaction at high dose (10(5) TCID50) in goats and sheep and provided complete protection even at low dose (10(2) TCID50) in goats when challenged with virulent virus. There was no shedding and horizontal transmission of the attenuated virus to in-contact controls. The results indicate that the developed PPR Ta attenuated virus is innocuous, safe, immunogenic and potent or efficacious vaccine candidate alternative to the existing vaccines for the protection of goats and sheep against PPR in the tropical countries like India.

TaqMan based real-time duplex PCR for simultaneous detection and quantitation of capripox and orf virus genomes in clinical samples

A rapid and sensitive TaqMan based real-time duplex PCR (drt-PCR) assay for simultaneous detection, differentiation and quantitation of Capripoxvirus (CaPV) and Orf virus (ORFV) DNA, was optimized targeting the highly conserved DNA polymerase genes of these virus genomes. Two pairs of oligonucleotide primers and two hybridization probes labeled with Cy5/BHQ1 and Hex/BHQ1 for CaPV and ORFV, respectively, were used in the drt-PCR assay. The assay was found to be specific only to targeted viruses and did not react with buffalopox virus (BPXV), camelpox virus (CMLV) (Orthopoxviruses) and cDNA of Peste des petits ruminants virus and bluetongue virus, the other common viruses of sheep and goats. The detection limit of the assay was 20 copies for each of the standard plasmid and 35fg of viral genomic DNA for CaPV and ORFV, respectively, in a single and mixed virus population. Both intra-(0.49-4.6% and 0.7-3.7%) and inter-(0.6-2.35% and 0.27-2.1%) assay variations of drt-PCR for CaPV and ORFV DNA were within the acceptable limits, implying high reproducibility and repeatability of the assay. Further, the diagnostic specificity and the sensitivity of the assay was assessed using known virus isolates of sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV) and ORFV and the clinical specimens from sheep and goats. The developed drt-PCR assay was able to detect, differentiate, quantify simultaneously and also to identity mixed infections of CaPV and ORFV in sheep and goats.

Multiplex PCR for simultaneous detection and differentiation of sheeppox, goatpox and orf viruses from clinical samples of sheep and goats

A multiplex polymerase chain reaction (mPCR) was developed and evaluated for detection of pox viral infections simultaneously using clinical samples from sheep and goats. Specific primers for three pox viruses of sheep and goats including sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV) and orf virus (ORFV) were designed targeting conserved sequences of the DNA binding phosphoprotein (I3L) coding gene of Capripoxvirus (CaPV) and the DNA polymerase (E9L) gene of parapoxvirus for identification of these viruses. The mPCR assay was found to be sensitive for detecting as low as 350 pg of viral genomic DNA or 10(2) copies of standard plasmid of individual targets; and 10(3) copies of plasmid in a mixture of two or three viruses. The assay was specific for detecting one or more of the viruses in various combinations from clinical specimens. Two hundred and thirty five (n=235) clinical samples from sheep and goats received from different geographical regions of the country for diagnosis of pox infection were evaluated by developed uniplex and mPCR assays. The assay had improved diagnostic sensitivity and specificity over to in-use laboratory diagnostic methods and can be useful for clinical differential diagnosis of these infections in sheep and goats.

Animal poxvirus vaccines: a comprehensive review

The family Poxviridae includes several viruses of medical and veterinary importance. Global concerted efforts combined with an intensive mass-vaccination campaign with highly efficaceious live vaccine of vaccinia virus have led to eradication of smallpox. However, orthopoxviruses affecting domestic animals continue to cause outbreaks in several endemic countries. Different kinds of vaccines starting from conventional inactivated/attenuated to recombinant protein-based vaccines have been used for control of poxvirus infections. Live virus homologous vaccines are currently in use for diseases including capripox, parapox, camelpox and fowlpox, and these vaccines are highly effective in eliciting (with the exception of parapoxviruses) long-lasting immunity. Attenuated strains of poxviruses have been exploited as vectored vaccines to deliver heterologous immunogens, many of them being licensed for use in animals. Worthy of note are vaccinia virus, fowlpox virus, capripoxvirus, parapoxvirus and canary pox, which have been successfully used for developing new-generation vaccines targeting many important pathogens. Remarkable features of these vaccines are thermostability and their ability to engender both cellular and humoral immune responses to the target pathogens. This article updates the important vaccines available for poxviruses of livestock and identifies some of the research gaps in the present context of poxvirus research.

Analgesic, Antibacterial and Antiviral Activities of 2-(5-Alkyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)-3H-benzo[f]chromen-3-ones

A novel series of 2-(5-alkyl-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)-3H-benzo[f]chromen-3-ones (4a-e) have been evaluated for analgesic, antibacterial and antiviral activities. Analgesic activity was carried out using acetic acid-induced writhing method in Swiss albino male mice. The antibacterial activity was performed against Gram-positive and Gram-negative clinical strains by agar well diffusion method. The in vitro antiviral activity was carried out against camelpox and buffalopox viruses. The analgesic activity exhibited by the compounds 4a, 4c and 4d were found to be more significant compared to the standard. The bacterial activity was determined by the inhibition of growth of the organism by the drugs at different concentrations. All the compounds showed significant activity when compared with the drug ciprofloxacin. The in vitro antiviral activity of the compound 4b tested against camelpox and buffalopox viruses revealed no activity when tested at concentrations of 250 μg. The compound 4b did not alter the titres of both the viruses and the titres remain, respectively, 10^6.5 TCID₅₀ and 10^6.74 TCID₅₀ per ml for camelpox vaccine virus and buffalopox vaccine virus. However, the compounds 4a-e showed significant analgesic and antibacterial activities.

Prevalence of peste des petits ruminants among sheep and goats in India

This study measured the clinical prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) among sheep and goats in India between 2003 and 2009 by analyzing clinical samples from suspected cases of PPR that were submitted to the Rinderpest and Allied Disease Laboratory, Division of Virology, IVRI, Mukteswar for PPR diagnosis. PPR outbreaks were confirmed by detecting PPR virus (PPRV)-specific antigen in the clinical samples. Clinical samples (blood, nasal swabs, spleen, lymph node, kidney, liver, intestine, and pooled tissue materials) were taken from a total of 592 sheep and 912 goats in different states of India and screened for the presence of PPRV antigen using a monoclonal antibody-based sandwich ELISA kit. A total of 20, 38, and 11 laboratory-confirmed PPR outbreaks occurred among sheep, goat, and combined sheep and goat populations, respectively. Our findings provide evidence of widespread PPR endemicity in India. The underlying reasons could be variations in husbandry practices in different geographical regions, agro-climatic conditions, and livestock migration. Furthermore, decrease in the number of PPR outbreaks over time might be due to the effectiveness of current live PPR vaccines and timely vaccination of target species. Vaccination against PPR has been practiced in India since 2002 to control this disease.