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Morrison HA, Hoyt KJ, Mounzer C, Ivester HM, Barnes BH, Sauer B, McGowan EC, Allen IC. Expression profiling identifies key genes and biological functions associated with eosinophilic esophagitis in human patients. Front Allergy 2023; 4:1239273. [PMID: 37692891 PMCID: PMC10484407 DOI: 10.3389/falgy.2023.1239273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Eosinophilic Esophagitis (EoE) is a chronic allergic disease characterized by progressive inflammation of the esophageal mucosa. This chronic inflammatory disorder affects up to 50 per 100,000 individuals in the United States and Europe yet is limited in treatment options. While the transcriptome of EoE has been reported, few studies have examined the genetics among a cohort including both adult and pediatric EoE populations. To identify potentially overlooked biomarkers in EoE esophageal biopsies that may be promising targets for diagnostic and therapeutic development. Methods We used microarray analysis to interrogate gene expression using esophageal biopsies from EoE and Control subjects with a wide age distribution. Analysis of differential gene expression (DEGs) and prediction of impaired pathways was compared using conventional transcriptome analysis (TAC) and artificial intelligence-based (ADVAITA) programs. Principal Components Analysis revealed samples cluster by disease status (EoE and Control) irrespective of clinical features like sex, age, and disease severity. Results Global transcriptomic analysis revealed differential expression of several genes previously reported in EoE (CCL26, CPA3, POSTN, CTSC, ANO1, CRISP3, SPINK7). In addition, we identified differential expression of several genes from the MUC and SPRR families, which have been limited in previous reports. Discussion Our findings suggest that there is epithelial dysregulation demonstrated by DEGs that may contribute to impaired barrier integrity and loss of epidermal cell differentiation in EoE patients. These findings present two new gene families, SPRR and MUC, that are differentially expressed in both adult and pediatric EoE patients, which presents an opportunity for a future therapeutic target that would be useful in a large demographic of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly A. Morrison
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Kacie J. Hoyt
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Christina Mounzer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Hannah M. Ivester
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Barrett H. Barnes
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology/Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Bryan Sauer
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States
| | - Emily C. McGowan
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, United States
- Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Irving C. Allen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Roanoke, VA, United States
- Department of Basic Science Education, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, United States
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Hassebroek AM, Sooryanarain H, Heffron CL, Hawks SA, LeRoith T, Cecere TE, Stone WB, Walter D, Mahsoub HM, Wang B, Tian D, Ivester HM, Allen IC, Auguste AJ, Duggal NK, Zhang C, Meng XJ. A hepatitis B virus core antigen-based virus-like particle vaccine expressing SARS-CoV-2 B and T cell epitopes induces epitope-specific humoral and cell-mediated immune responses but confers limited protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection. J Med Virol 2023; 95:e28503. [PMID: 36655751 PMCID: PMC9974889 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.28503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The hepatitis B virus core antigen (HBcAg) tolerates insertion of foreign epitopes and maintains its ability to self-assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs). We constructed a ∆HBcAg-based VLP vaccine expressing three predicted severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) B and T cell epitopes and determined its immunogenicity and protective efficacy. The recombinant ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified, and shown to form VLPs. K18-hACE2 transgenic C57BL/6 mice were immunized intramuscularly with ∆HBcAg VLP control (n = 15) or ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 VLP vaccine (n = 15). One week after the 2nd booster and before virus challenge, five ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 vaccinated mice were euthanized to evaluate epitope-specific immune responses. There is a statistically significant increase in epitope-specific Immunoglobulin G (IgG) response, and statistically higher interleukin 6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) expression levels in ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 VLP-vaccinated mice compared to ∆HBcAg VLP controls. While not statistically significant, the ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 VLP mice had numerically more memory CD8+ T-cells, and 3/5 mice also had numerically higher levels of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). After challenge with SARS-CoV-2, ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 immunized mice had numerically lower viral RNA loads in the lung, and slightly higher survival, but the differences are not statistically significant. These results indicate that the ∆HBcAg-SARS-CoV-2 VLP vaccine elicits epitope-specific humoral and cell-mediated immune responses but they were insufficient against SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M. Hassebroek
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Harini Sooryanarain
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - C. Lynn Heffron
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Seth A. Hawks
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Tanya LeRoith
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Thomas E. Cecere
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - William B. Stone
- Department of Entomology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Debra Walter
- Department of Biological System Engineering, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Hassan M. Mahsoub
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Debin Tian
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Hannah M. Ivester
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Irving C. Allen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Albert J. Auguste
- Department of Entomology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Nisha K. Duggal
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Chenming Zhang
- Department of Biological System Engineering, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Xiang-Jin Meng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Center for Emerging, Zoonotic, and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
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Behzadinasab S, Hosseini M, Williams MD, Ivester HM, Allen IC, Falkinham JO, Ducker WA. Antimicrobial Activity of Cuprous Oxide and Cupric Oxide-Coated Surfaces. J Hosp Infect 2022; 129:58-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2022.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Tupik JD, Markov Madanick JW, Ivester HM, Allen IC. Detecting DNA: An Overview of DNA Recognition by Inflammasomes and Protection against Bacterial Respiratory Infections. Cells 2022; 11:cells11101681. [PMID: 35626718 PMCID: PMC9139316 DOI: 10.3390/cells11101681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immune system plays a key role in modulating host immune defense during bacterial disease. Upon sensing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), the multi-protein complex known as the inflammasome serves a protective role against bacteria burden through facilitating pathogen clearance and bacteria lysis. This can occur through two mechanisms: (1) the cleavage of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β/IL-18 and (2) the initiation of inflammatory cell death termed pyroptosis. In recent literature, AIM2-like Receptor (ALR) and Nod-like Receptor (NLR) inflammasome activation has been implicated in host protection following recognition of bacterial DNA. Here, we review current literature synthesizing mechanisms of DNA recognition by inflammasomes during bacterial respiratory disease. This process can occur through direct sensing of DNA or indirectly by sensing pathogen-associated intracellular changes. Additionally, DNA recognition may be assisted through inflammasome–inflammasome interactions, specifically non-canonical inflammasome activation of NLRP3, and crosstalk with the interferon-inducible DNA sensors Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING) and Z-DNA Binding Protein-1 (ZBP1). Ultimately, bacterial DNA sensing by inflammasomes is highly protective during respiratory disease, emphasizing the importance of inflammasome involvement in the respiratory tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juselyn D. Tupik
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.D.T.); (J.W.M.M.); (H.M.I.)
| | - Justin W. Markov Madanick
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.D.T.); (J.W.M.M.); (H.M.I.)
| | - Hannah M. Ivester
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.D.T.); (J.W.M.M.); (H.M.I.)
| | - Irving C. Allen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; (J.D.T.); (J.W.M.M.); (H.M.I.)
- Department of Basic Science Education, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-540-231-7551; Fax: +1-540-231-6033
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Tupik JD, Benton AH, King KA, Ivester HM, Madanik JM, Coutermarsh-Ott SL, Caswell CC, Allen IC. The Goldilocks Conundrum: The protective and adverse roles of immunoregulation by NOD-like receptors (NLRs) during brucellosis. The Journal of Immunology 2022. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.208.supp.51.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Brucellosis (Brucella spp.) is a bacterial zoonotic disease characterized by immune evasion. By hiding inside of macrophage vacuoles, Brucella often persist in hosts and instigate lifelong chronic inflammatory conditions. Despite mechanisms to combat host immune defense, NOD-like (NLR) pattern recognition receptors play an important role in immunoregulation during brucellosis. We have previously demonstrated that formation of pro-inflammatory NLRs into the multi-protein complex termed the inflammasome plays a protective role against brucellosis, resulting from the initiation of inflammatory cell death following recognition of Brucella genomic (g)DNA. Despite this investigation, the role of anti-inflammatory NLRs such as NLRX1 during brucellosis has not been determined. Here, we infected wildtype (WT) and Nlrx1−/− mice with Brucella abortus to evaluate the effect of an anti-inflammatory NLR during brucellosis. We found that WT mice displayed a stronger phenotypic presentation of infection, exhibiting increased splenomegaly, as well as elevated bacterial load and WBC infiltration in the liver when compared with knockout mice. This indicates that NLRX1 may exacerbate brucellosis presentation in vivo. Through further in vitro studies infecting murine WT and Nlrx1−/− macrophages, we found that NLRX1 attenuated inflammation, particularly in response to Brucella gDNA, and led to increased bacterial load in WT macrophages. Ultimately, these results indicate that NLRX1 may play an adverse role during brucellosis through reducing inflammation. This study further emphasizes the multifaceted role of NLRs during brucellosis and “Goldilocks Conundrum” in establishing immune system homeostasis in NLR-mediated diseases.
Supported by the Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine (VT/UMD Joint Seed Grant; DVM/PhD Student Support) and the NIH/NIAID (R03AI151494)
Supported by the Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine (VT/UMD Joint Seed Grant; DVM/PhD Student Support) and the NIH/NIAID (R03AI151494)
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Affiliation(s)
- Juselyn D Tupik
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
| | - Angela H Benton
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
| | - Kellie A King
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
| | - Hannah M Ivester
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
| | - Justin Markov Madanik
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
| | | | - Clayton C Caswell
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
| | - Irving C Allen
- 1Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Col. of Vet. Med
- 2Department of Basic Science Education, Virginia Tech Carilion Sch. of Med. and Res. Inst
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Callahan V, Hawks S, Crawford MA, Lehman CW, Morrison HA, Ivester HM, Akhrymuk I, Boghdeh N, Flor R, Finkielstein CV, Allen IC, Weger-Lucarelli J, Duggal N, Hughes MA, Kehn-Hall K. The Pro-Inflammatory Chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11 Are Upregulated Following SARS-CoV-2 Infection in an AKT-Dependent Manner. Viruses 2021; 13:1062. [PMID: 34205098 PMCID: PMC8226769 DOI: 10.3390/v13061062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly transmissible RNA virus that is the causative agent of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Patients with severe COVID-19 may develop acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and require mechanical ventilation. Key features of SARS-CoV-2 induced pulmonary complications include an overexpression of pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines that contribute to a 'cytokine storm.' In the current study an inflammatory state in Calu-3 human lung epithelial cells was characterized in which significantly elevated transcripts of the immunostimulatory chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 were present. Additionally, an increase in gene expression of the cytokines IL-6, TNFα, and IFN-γ was observed. The transcription of CXCL9, CXCL10, IL-6, and IFN-γ was also induced in the lungs of human transgenic angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) mice infected with SARS-CoV-2. To elucidate cell signaling pathways responsible for chemokine upregulation in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells, small molecule inhibitors targeting key signaling kinases were used. The induction of CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 gene expression in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection was markedly reduced by treatment with the AKT inhibitor GSK690693. Samples from COVID-19 positive individuals also displayed marked increases in CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11 transcripts as well as transcripts in the AKT pathway. The current study elucidates potential pathway specific targets for reducing the induction of chemokines that may be contributing to SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis via hyperinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Callahan
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; (V.C.); (N.B.); (R.F.)
| | - Seth Hawks
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
| | - Matthew A. Crawford
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (M.A.C.); (M.A.H.)
| | - Caitlin W. Lehman
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
| | - Holly A. Morrison
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
| | - Hannah M. Ivester
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine and Health, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Roanoke, VA 24061, USA;
| | - Ivan Akhrymuk
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
| | - Niloufar Boghdeh
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; (V.C.); (N.B.); (R.F.)
| | - Rafaela Flor
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; (V.C.); (N.B.); (R.F.)
| | - Carla V. Finkielstein
- Integrated Cellular Responses Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Drug Discovery, Fralin Biomedical Research Institute, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Roanoke, VA 24016, USA;
| | - Irving Coy Allen
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
- Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24016, USA
- Center for Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - James Weger-Lucarelli
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
- Center for Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Nisha Duggal
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
- Center for Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Molly A. Hughes
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA; (M.A.C.); (M.A.H.)
| | - Kylene Kehn-Hall
- National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA 20110, USA; (V.C.); (N.B.); (R.F.)
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA; (S.H.); (C.W.L.); (H.A.M.); (I.A.); (I.C.A.); (J.W.-L.); (N.D.)
- Center for Zoonotic and Arthropod-borne Pathogens, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
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