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Qin K, Marien H, Custers R, Aarts H. How the environment evokes actions that lead to different goals: the role of object multi-functionality in pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer. Curr Psychol 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37359629 PMCID: PMC10088748 DOI: 10.1007/s12144-023-04612-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Research shows that stimuli in the environment can trigger behavior via the activation of goal representations. This process can be tested in the Pavlovian-to-Instrumental Transfer (PIT) paradigm, where stimuli can only affect behavior through the activation of the representation of its desired outcome (i.e., the PIT effect). Previous research has demonstrated that the PIT effect is stronger when the goal is more desirable. While this research only looked at actions that have single outcomes (e.g., obtaining a snack to satisfy appetite), in the present paper, we reason that actions that are instrumental in obtaining outcomes that are desirable in multiple ways (e.g., obtaining a snack to satisfy one's appetite, giving it to a friend, trading it for money) should produce stronger PIT effects. In two experiments, participants learned to perform left and right key presses to earn a snack, either framed as having a single function or multiple functions. Participants also learned to associate the two differently framed snacks with two cues. In a PIT test, they were required to press the keys as fast as possible upon exposure to the cues (i.e., the PIT effect). We found that cues associated with the multi-functional snack facilitated the actions that earned those snacks before, while cues associated with the single-functional snack did not facilitate such actions. We discuss these findings in the context of research on free choice and personal autonomy and how people appreciate the multi-functional nature of their goal-directed behavior in the environment. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-023-04612-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyang Qin
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, Utrecht, 3508 TC The Netherlands
| | - Hans Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, Utrecht, 3508 TC The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Custers
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, Utrecht, 3508 TC The Netherlands
| | - Henk Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, Utrecht, 3508 TC The Netherlands
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2
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Gardner B, Arden MA, Brown D, Eves FF, Green J, Hamilton K, Hankonen N, Inauen J, Keller J, Kwasnicka D, Labudek S, Marien H, Masaryk R, McCleary N, Mullan BA, Neter E, Orbell S, Potthoff S, Lally P. Developing habit-based health behaviour change interventions: twenty-one questions to guide future research. Psychol Health 2023; 38:518-540. [PMID: 34779335 DOI: 10.1080/08870446.2021.2003362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Habitual behaviours are triggered automatically, with little conscious forethought. Theory suggests that making healthy behaviours habitual, and breaking the habits that underpin many ingrained unhealthy behaviours, promotes long-term behaviour change. This has prompted interest in incorporating habit formation and disruption strategies into behaviour change interventions. Yet, notable research gaps limit understanding of how to harness habit to change real-world behaviours. METHODS Discussions among health psychology researchers and practitioners, at the 2019 European Health Psychology Society 'Synergy Expert Meeting', generated pertinent questions to guide further research into habit and health behaviour. RESULTS In line with the four topics discussed at the meeting, 21 questions were identified, concerning: how habit manifests in health behaviour (3 questions); how to form healthy habits (5 questions); how to break unhealthy habits (4 questions); and how to develop and evaluate habit-based behaviour change interventions (9 questions). CONCLUSIONS While our questions transcend research contexts, accumulating knowledge across studies of specific health behaviours, settings, and populations will build a broader understanding of habit change principles and how they may be embedded into interventions. We encourage researchers and practitioners to prioritise these questions, to further theory and evidence around how to create long-lasting health behaviour change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Gardner
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Madelynne A Arden
- Centre for Behavioural Science and Applied Psychology, Department of Psychology, Sociology & Politics, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
| | - Daniel Brown
- Department of Applied Psychology, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Frank F Eves
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - James Green
- School of Allied Health and Physical Activity for Health Research Cluster (Health Research Institute), University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Kyra Hamilton
- Griffith University and Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Mt Gravatt, Qld, Australia
| | - Nelli Hankonen
- Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jennifer Inauen
- Department of Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine, Institute of Psychology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jan Keller
- Division Health Psychology, Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dominika Kwasnicka
- Faculty of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Wrocław, Poland.,NHMRC CRE in Digital Technology to Transform Chronic Disease Outcomes, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Sarah Labudek
- Network Aging Research (NAR), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hans Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Radomír Masaryk
- Institute of Applied Psychology, Faculty of Social and Economic Sciences, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Nicola McCleary
- Clinical Epidemiology Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada.,School of Epidemiology and Public Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Barbara A Mullan
- Behavioural Science and Health Research Group, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - Efrat Neter
- Department of Behavioral Sciences, Ruppin Academic Center, Emeq Hefer, Israel
| | - Sheina Orbell
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK
| | - Sebastian Potthoff
- Department of Social Work, Education, and Community Wellbeing, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Phillippa Lally
- Research Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
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Qin K, Marien H, Custers R, Aarts H. Environmental control of social goals: using Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer to test cue-based pro-self and pro-social outcome responses. R Soc Open Sci 2023; 10:220660. [PMID: 36704250 PMCID: PMC9874268 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
A large amount of literature demonstrates that social behaviour can be triggered by environmental cues. A long-standing debate involves the question of whether such stimuli trigger behaviour directly (i.e. habits) or whether these effects mediate goals. As studies on automatic goal pursuit typically use real-world cues that are already associated with the behaviour and potentially the goal, it is impossible to make strong claims about the nature of the effects. In the present paper, we use a paradigm inspired by the Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT) literature to examine how the environment can trigger goal-directed behaviour. Building on the essence of pro-self and pro-social motives in humans, two experiments explored the PIT effect when the outcomes were framed in terms of self- versus other-interest. Participants performed actions to earn money for themselves or a charity. Each outcome was linked to a different cue. The results showed that a cue predictive of self-interest outcomes facilitated responses instrumental in gaining the outcome, while such specific PIT effect for other-interest outcomes only emerged when participants were free to donate the money. We briefly discuss these findings reflecting on whether the PIT effect in our paradigm is indeed sensitive to the value of social goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyang Qin
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht 3584 CS, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht 3584 CS, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud Custers
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht 3584 CS, The Netherlands
| | - Henk Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht 3584 CS, The Netherlands
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Abstract
Ideomotor (IM) theory provides a popular mechanistic account for understanding how goal-directed action can be learned and instigated. That is, when associations between actions and outcomes have been established in memory, the perception or thought of the outcome could automatically activate the associated action. Whereas a sizable literature provides evidence in line with this account, it does not successfully exclude alternative explanations in terms of propositions based on causal inferences. In the present paper, we present an online IM paradigm, in which learning and testing occurs on the same trials. In line with recent findings, we demonstrate that IM effects can emerge within a couple of trials, but also that people can update learned action-outcome associations immediately when a new mapping of outcomes on actions is introduced, without any switch costs. Together, this suggests that IM effects may be driven by propositions about causal relations, rather than bidirectional associations stored in memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Sun
- Department of Social, Health, and Organizational Psychology
| | - Ruud Custers
- Department of Social, Health, and Organizational Psychology
| | - Hans Marien
- Department of Social, Health, and Organizational Psychology
| | | | - Henk Aarts
- Department of Social, Health, and Organizational Psychology
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Qin K, Marien H, Custers R, Aarts H. Environmental control of human goal pursuit: Investigating cue-based forced responses in a Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer paradigm. Motivation Science 2021. [DOI: 10.1037/mot0000219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Antusch S, Custers R, Marien H, Aarts H. Studying the sense of agency in the absence of motor movement: an investigation into temporal binding of tactile sensations and auditory effects. Exp Brain Res 2021; 239:1795-1806. [PMID: 33829297 PMCID: PMC8277642 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-021-06087-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
People form coherent representations of goal-directed actions. Such agency experiences of intentional action are reflected by a shift in temporal perception: self-generated motor movements and subsequent sensory effects are perceived to occur closer together in time—a phenomenon termed intentional binding. Building on recent research suggesting that temporal binding occurs without intentionally performing actions, we further examined whether such perceptual compression occurs when motor action is fully absent. In three experiments, we used a novel sensory-based adaptation of the Libet clock paradigm to assess how a brief tactile sensation on the index finger and a resulting auditory stimulus perceptually bind together in time. Findings revealed robust temporal repulsion (instead of binding) between tactile sensation and auditory effect. Temporal repulsion was attenuated when participants could anticipate the identity and temporal onset (two crucial components of intentional action) of the tactile sensation. These findings are briefly discussed in the context of differences between intentional movement and anticipated bodily sensations in shaping action coherence and agentic experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Antusch
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - R Custers
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - H Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - H Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, PO BOX 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Antusch S, Custers R, Marien H, Aarts H. Intentional action and limitation of personal autonomy. Do restrictions of action selection decrease the sense of agency? Conscious Cogn 2021; 88:103076. [PMID: 33485117 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The experience of being an intentional agent is a key component of personal autonomy. Here, we tested how undermining intentional action affects the sense of agency as indexed by intentional binding. In three experiments using the Libet clock paradigm, participants judged the onset of their action (key presses) and resulting effect (auditory stimuli) under conditions of no, partial, or full autonomy over selecting and timing their actions. In all cases, we observed a moderate to strong intentional binding effect. However, we found no evidence for an influence of personal autonomy on intentional binding. These findings thus suggest that being unable to decide how and when to perform actions does not affect the perceived temporal binding between action and effect, a phenomenon suggested to be associated with the implicit sense of agency. We discuss the implications of our findings in the context of research on personal autonomy and goal-directed behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Antusch
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
| | - R Custers
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - H Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - H Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
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Harris C, Fiedler K, Marien H, Custers R. Biased preferences through exploitation: How initial biases are consolidated in reward-rich environments. J Exp Psychol Gen 2020; 149:1855-1877. [PMID: 32324024 DOI: 10.1037/xge0000754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the current article, we test the prediction that an initial bias favoring 1 of 2 equally rewarding options-either based on a genuine contingency or a pseudocontingency in a small sample of initial observations-can survive over an extended period of further sampling from both options, when the reward structure fosters exploitation. Specifically, we argue and demonstrate that in reward-rich environments where two options predominantly-but equally frequently-yield positive outcomes, the initial bias should be upheld because exploitation of the allegedly superior option reinforces the biased preference. In contrast, in reward-impoverished environments, where both options yield predominantly negative outcomes, initial biases can be expected to be eradicated through exploration, which increases the chance of recognizing the equality of the initially nonpreferred option. In 3 experiments, initial evidence in a guided-sampling phase was set up for participants to perceive an actual contingency (Experiment 1) or infer a pseudocontingency (Experiment 2a and b) that made 1 option look more rewarding. In a subsequent free-sampling phase this led to a sustained bias toward this option when the environment contained mostly positive but not when it contained mostly negative outcomes. We argue that biased sampling in reward-rich environments could be responsible for false beliefs about the outcomes of behavioral options, and as such could be relevant to a broad range of topics including social interactions or health contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hans Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University
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Sun D, Custers R, Marien H, Aarts H. Ideomotor Action: Evidence for Automaticity in Learning, but Not Execution. Front Psychol 2020; 11:185. [PMID: 32116968 PMCID: PMC7033682 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human habits are widely assumed to result from stimulus-response (S-R) associations that are formed if one frequently and consistently does the same thing in the same situation. According to Ideomotor Theory, a distinct but similar process could lead to response-outcome (R-O) associations if responses frequently and consistently produce the same outcomes. This process is assumed to occur spontaneously, and because these associations can operate in a bidirectional manner, merely perceiving or thinking of an outcome should automatically activate the associated action. In the current paper we test this automaticity feature of ideomotor learning. In four experiments, participants completed the same learning phase in which they could acquire associations, and were either explicitly informed about the contingency between actions and outcomes, or not. Automatic action selection and initiation were investigated using a free-choice task in Experiment 1 and forced-choice tasks in Experiment 2, 3a, and 3b. An ideomotor effect was only obtained in the free-choice, but not convincingly in the forced-choice tasks. Together, this suggests that action-outcome relations can be learned spontaneously, but that there may be limits to the automaticity of the ideomotor effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Sun
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ruud Custers
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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Abstract
Human habits are considered to be an important root of societal problems. The significance of habits has been demonstrated for a variety of behaviors in different domains, such as work, transportation, health, and ecology, suggesting that habits have a pervasive impact on human life. Studying and changing habits in societal context requires a broad view of behavior, which poses a challenge for applying basic models to complex human habits. We address the conceptualization and operationalization of habits in the current literature and note that claims about the role of habits in societal context rarely agree with the basic definition of habits as goal-independent behavior. We consider future directions that are important for making progress in the study of habit change in societal context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University
| | | | - Henk Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University
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Marien H, Aarts H, Custers R. The interactive role of action-outcome learning and positive affective information in motivating human goal-directed behavior. Motivation Science 2015. [DOI: 10.1037/mot0000021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Marien H, Aarts H, Custers R. Adaptive control of human action: the role of outcome representations and reward signals. Front Psychol 2013; 4:602. [PMID: 24058352 PMCID: PMC3766794 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The present paper aims to advance the understanding of the control of human behavior by integrating two lines of literature that so far have led separate lives. First, one line of literature is concerned with the ideomotor principle of human behavior, according to which actions are represented in terms of their outcomes. The second line of literature mainly considers the role of reward signals in adaptive control. Here, we offer a combined perspective on how outcome representations and reward signals work together to modulate adaptive control processes. We propose that reward signals signify the value of outcome representations and facilitate the recruitment of control resources in situations where behavior needs to be maintained or adapted to attain the represented outcome. We discuss recent research demonstrating how adaptive control of goal-directed behavior may emerge when outcome representations are co-activated with positive reward signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans Marien
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Henk Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ruud Custers
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht UniversityUtrecht, Netherlands
- Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences, University College LondonLondon, UK
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Hanssens J, De Swaef T, Steppe K, Goen K, De Nayer F, Wittemans L, Marien H, Desmedt J. EFFECT OF STEM AGE ON THE RESPONSE OF STEM DIAMETER VARIATIONS TO PLANT WATER STATUS IN TOMATO. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.17660/actahortic.2012.952.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Marien H, Custers R, Hassin RR, Aarts H. Unconscious goal activation and the hijacking of the executive function. J Pers Soc Psychol 2012; 103:399-415. [DOI: 10.1037/a0028955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Marien H, Aarts H, Custers R. Being flexible or rigid in goal-directed behavior: When positive affect implicitly motivates the pursuit of goals or means. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2011.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Aarts H, Custers R, Marien H. Priming and authorship ascription: When nonconscious goals turn into conscious experiences of self-agency. J Pers Soc Psychol 2009; 96:967-79. [PMID: 19379030 DOI: 10.1037/a0015000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Henk Aarts
- Utrecht University, Department of Psychology, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Fack E, De Swaef T, Desmedt J, Goen K, Wittremans L, Marien H, Steppe K. Vertical microclimatic gradients in semiclosed greenhouse and plant water uptake. Commun Agric Appl Biol Sci 2009; 74:133-138. [PMID: 20420235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- E Fack
- Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Department of Applied Ecology and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
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Abstract
The mere activation of the idea of a behavioral act moves the human body without the person consciously deciding to take action. In an experiment, we showed that people subliminally primed with the concept of exertion were faster to squeeze a hand grip forcefully but expended more effort when the subliminal primes were directly accompanied by consciously visible positive stimuli. These findings demonstrate the human capacity to rely on mental processes in preparing and motivating behavior outside of awareness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henk Aarts
- Department of Psychology, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS Utrecht, Netherlands.
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