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Jonkers TJH, Keizers PHJ, Béen F, Meijer J, Houtman CJ, Al Gharib I, Molenaar D, Hamers T, Lamoree MH. Identifying antimicrobials and their metabolites in wastewater and surface water with effect-directed analysis. Chemosphere 2023; 320:138093. [PMID: 36758810 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to identify antimicrobial contaminants in the aquatic environment with effect-directed analysis. Wastewater influent, effluent, and surface water (up- and downstream of the discharge location) were sampled at two study sites. The samples were enriched, subjected to high-resolution fractionation, and the resulting 80 fractions were tested in an antibiotics bioassay. The resulting bioactive fractions guided the suspect and nontargeted identification strategy in the high-resolution mass spectrometry data that was recorded in parallel. Chemical features were annotated with reference databases, assessed on annotation quality, and assigned identification confidence levels. To identify antibiotic metabolites, Phase I metabolites were predicted in silico for over 500 antibiotics and included as a suspect list. Predicted retention times and fragmentation patterns reduced the number of annotations to consider for confirmation testing. Overall, the bioactivity of three fractions could be explained by the identified antibiotics (clarithromycin and azithromycin) and an antibiotic metabolite (14-OH(R) clarithromycin), explaining 78% of the bioactivity measured at one study site. The applied identification strategy successfully identified antibiotic metabolites in the aquatic environment, emphasizing the need to include the toxic effects of bioactive metabolites in environmental risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim J H Jonkers
- Department of Environment & Health, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Peter H J Keizers
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment RIVM, A. van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3721MA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - Frederic Béen
- Department of Environment & Health, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; KWR Water Research Institute, Groningenhaven 7, 3430 BB, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands.
| | - Jeroen Meijer
- Department of Environment & Health, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Corine J Houtman
- The Water Laboratory, J.W. Lucasweg 2, 2031 BE, Haarlem, the Netherlands.
| | - Imane Al Gharib
- Systems Biology Lab, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Douwe Molenaar
- Systems Biology Lab, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Timo Hamers
- Department of Environment & Health, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Marja H Lamoree
- Department of Environment & Health, Faculty of Science, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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