Blocking NMDA receptors in the hippocampal dentate gyrus with AP5 produces analgesia in the formalin pain test

The hippocampus is an integral component of the "limbic" system and, as such, may contribute to the negative affect and avoidance motivation experienced during pain. A substantial body of evidence indicates that the hippocampus processes pain-related information, that some hippocampal neurons respond exclusively to painful stimulation, and that long-term anatomical changes occur in dentate gyrus neurons, following noxious physical stimulation. NMDA receptor antagonist drugs administered to the hippocampus interfere with long-term potentiation, learning, and memory; these same drugs, when applied to the spinal cord, prevent the long-term neurophysiological changes caused by noxious physical stimulation. This experiment tested whether blocking NMDA receptors in the hippocampal formation reduces nociceptive behaviors in an animal model of persistent human pain. The competitive NMDA receptor antagonist AP5 was injected into the dentate gyrus of alert, unrestrained rats either 5 min before or 15 min following the administration of a subcutaneous injection of formalin irritant. Pain behaviors in both acute and tonic phases of the formalin test were significantly reduced by AP5 treatments. These results support the hypothesis that the hippocampal formation is involved in pain-related neural processing and that NMDA receptor-sensitive mechanisms in the hippocampus are involved in pain perception and/or the expression of pain-related behaviors.

The pasta matrix reaching task: a simple test for measuring skilled reaching distance, direction, and dexterity in rats

Skilled forelimb use has been used in many studies to examine motor system status, learning, and recovery from nervous system damage in rats. The dependent measures in many current skilled reaching models rely on endpoint measures, number of successful reaches, or qualitative measures, the movements used in performing a reach. The present study describes a new reaching task, which allows measurement of distance and direction of skilled forelimb movement while also permitting end point and qualitative measurements. Animals reached from a clear Plexiglas box through an aperture to retrieve pieces of straight, uncooked pasta from an array of 260 vertically oriented pieces of pasta arranged in rows distally and laterally away from the aperture (a matrix). By extending the range of a reach, more pasta is obtained. Limb movements, pieces of pasta removed, and the pattern of pasta removal are dependent measures. The usefulness of the test is demonstrated using control, dorsal column lesion, and unilateral dopamine depleted animals. The task uses a desired food, tests learning and skill, the range of limb movement, and the ability to reach for different distances and directions. The task can also be modified to investigate other features of limb use including skill adjustments, laterality, and force.

Cervical motoneuron topography reflects the proximodistal organization of muscles and movements of the rat forelimb: a retrograde carbocyanine dye analysis

Behavioral evidence reveals that the laboratory rat and other rodent species display skilled paw and digit use in handling food during eating and skilled limb use in reaching for food in formal laboratory skilled reaching tests that is comparable to that described in carnivores and primates. Because less is known about the central control of skilled movements in rodents than in carnivores or primates, the purpose of the current study was to examine the relation between the rat's spinal motoneurons and the individual forelimb muscles that they innervate. In two experiments, 14 forelimb muscles (in the shoulder and the upper and lower arm segments) were injected with carbocyanine dye tracers. The topography of spinal motoneurons was reconstructed by using fluorescence microscopy. Motor neurons were found to be organized in columns throughout the length of the cervical and upper thoracic area, with 1) extensor motoneurons located more laterally than flexor motoneurons, 2) rostral motoneurons innervating more proximal muscles than caudal motoneurons, and 3) more dorsally located motoneurons innervating more distal muscles. These results reveal that the topography of rodent cervical spinal cord motoneurons is very similar to that of carnivores and of primates, which also are characterized by well-developed, skilled movements. In addition, the proximal-distal organization of motoneuron columns parallels the proximal-to-distal pattern of forelimb movement used by the rat when reaching. The data from this study enable the development of predictions about the specific movements that would be compromised by experimental transections or other injuries at different levels of the spinal cord in rat models of spinal injury.

Complete compensation in skilled reaching success with associated impairments in limb synergies, after dorsal column lesion in the rat

Each of the dorsal columns of the rat spinal cord conveys primary sensory information, by way of the medullary dorsal column nucleus, to the ventrobasal thalamus on the contralateral side; thus the dorsal columns are an important source of neural input to the sensorimotor cortex. Damage to the dorsal columns causes impairments in synergistic proximal or whole-body movements in cats and distal limb impairments in primates, particularly in multiarticulated finger movements and tactile foviation while handling objects, but the behavioral effects of afferent fiber lesions in the dorsal columns of rodents have not been described. Female Long-Evans rats were trained to reach with a forelimb for food pellets and subsequently received lesions of the dorsomedial spinal cord at the C2 level, ipsilateral to their preferred limb. Reaching success completely recovered within a few days of dorsal column lesion. Nevertheless, a detailed analysis of high-speed video recordings revealed that rotatory limb movements (aiming, pronation, supination, etc.) were irreversibly impaired. Compensation was achieved with whole-body and alternate limb movements. These results indicate the following: (1) in the absence of the dorsal columns, other sensorimotor pathways support endpoint success in reaching; (2) sensory input conveyed by the dorsal columns is important for both proximal and distal limb movements used for skilled reaching; and (3) detailed behavioral analyses in addition to endpoint measures are necessary to completely describe the effects of dorsal column lesions.

Serial sectioning of thick tissue with a novel vibrating blade microtome

Vibrating blade microtomes are used extensively in biological research to section non-frozen tissue. There are a wide variety of commercial instruments available for this purpose, however, they are designed to cut thin sections primarily from a tissue block less than one centimeter in height. Herein is described a simple modification of a microscope frame that creates a vibrating blade microtome capable of producing a sequential series of sections through three centimeters of tissue. We illustrate the use of this device to identify and reconstruct a column of rat spinal motor neurons retrogradely labeled from a peripheral muscle.

Comparison of the effects of treatment with intrathecal lidocaine given before and after formalin on both nociception and Fos expression in the spinal cord dorsal horn

BACKGROUND

It has been proposed that the measure of noxious stimulus-induced Fos (the protein product of the immediate early gene c-fos) expression in the spinal cord dorsal horn of laboratory animals may provide an estimate of the potential of specific treatments to produce preemptive analgesia. The present study examined this hypothesis by comparing the effects of intrathecal lidocaine given before and after hindpaw formalin injection on persistent nociceptive responses and Fos expression in spinal cord dorsal horn of rats.

METHODS

Formalin-induced nociception and Fos expression in the spinal cord, in response to a 50-microl injection of 2.5% formalin into the hind paw, were assessed in rats given an intrathecal injection of 50 microl 2% lidocaine by lumbar puncture between the L5 and L6 vertebrae, either 3 min before (pretreatment) or 5 min after (post-treatment) formalin injection.

RESULTS

Pain behaviors (hindpaw licking, elevation, and favoring) in the second phase of the formalin test were significantly reduced by pretreatment, but were unaffected by post-treatment. The number of immunocytochemically stained Fos-positive cells and the immunoprecipitation of the Fos antibodies were reduced by pretreatment, and were also reduced, to a lesser extent, by post-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The finding that persistent nociceptive behaviors and Fos expression were suppressed by intrathecal lidocaine pretreatment suggests that nociception in the second phase of the formalin test depends on increases in central hyperexcitability generated during the first phase. On the other hand, the finding that the intrathecal injection of lidocaine after formalin treatment reduced Fos expression but not nociceptive responses indicates an uncoupling of the behavioral and Fos protein responses to formalin and suggests that changes in Fos expression may not be a good predictor of the ability of agents to produce preemptive analgesia.

Hippocampal lesions and path integration

Research on spatial problem-solving over the past two years has linked the hippocampus to path integration, that is, the use of movement-related cues to guide spatial behavior. Path integration may underlie the forms of place learning that are impaired by hippocampal damage. It remains a challenge to determine whether path integration is the central function of the hippocampus or but one of many.

Amitriptyline produces analgesia in the formalin pain test

A dose of 20 mg/kg of amitriptyline reduced pain in the second phase of the formalin test, which is an animal model of long-lasting pain in humans. Since the analgesic effect was produced by a single dose, which is insufficient to produce an antidepressant effect, these results indicate that amitriptyline has analgesic properties that are independent of its antidepressant properties.

Effective Discharge Planning And The Neurosurgical Nurse

Discharge planning is a complex collaborative process that begins with the admission of a patient and culminates with a smooth discharge to another care facility or home. The process is designed to ensure quality of care and cost containment. However, the goals of discharge planning can only be realized if health care professionals involved in the patient's care see this as their professional responsibility and consciously work toward meeting the needs of the patient.