Exploring the Role of an Implantable Doppler Probe as a Blood Flow-Monitoring Device in Kidney Transplant: A Feasibility Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVES

Vascular thrombosis is a disastrous postoperative complication resulting in the loss of 3.5% to 5.7% of all kidney transplants. The use of blood flow-sensing technology in the early postoperative period may help in the early identification of vascular complications crucial to reducing graft loss. This study aimed to assess the feasibility of an implantable Doppler probe as a blood flow-monitoring device in kidney transplant recipients and to evaluate its usefulness in the prevention of early graft loss.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This 2-arm feasibility randomized controlled trial compared the demographic characteristics and surgical outcomes of kidney transplant recipients who received implantable Doppler probe monitoring (intervention group; n = 30) with those who had standard clinical care (control group; n = 30). Surgical outcomes compared between the groups included the number of early vascular complications identified,the number of departmental ultrasonography scans requested in the first 72 hours postoperatively, and month 3 graft loss.

RESULTS

Both groups were similar in demographic characteristics. In the intervention group versus the control group, fewer ultrasonography scans were requested in the first 24 hours postoperatively (56% vs 91%) and lower graft loss (0% vs 6.6%) was recorded. The results addressed uncertainties around the feasibility study's research methods and required resources for a future pragmatic trial.

CONCLUSIONS

An implantable Doppler probe may be a beneficial adjunct for graft monitoring after kidney transplants. This feasibility study provided the necessary preliminary information and filled initial gaps in the evidence that can inform future research. The prespecified progression criteria ofthe study were fulfilled. The study template used can be transferable to other transplant centers across theUnited Kingdom. A pragmatic large-scale randomized controlled trial is warranted to evaluate the effectiveness of implantable Doppler probes in clinical practice.

A Study Protocol Exploring the Role of an Implantable Doppler Probe in Kidney Transplantation: A Feasibility Randomized Controlled Trial with an Embedded Qualitative Study

OBJECTIVES

Vascular complications in kidney transplant surgery constitute one-third of early graft loss, which can be prevented by timely diagnosis of vascular compromise. A blood flow monitoring device may have a beneficial role in the early identification of graft hypoperfusion critical to reducing graft loss. This research protocol aims to evaluate the potential of an implantable Doppler probe as a blood flow monitoring device in kidney transplant recipients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The potential study will be a mixed methodology, 2-arm feasibility randomized controlled trial with an embedded qualitative study. For the trial, we will compare demographic characteristics and outcome measures of kidney transplant patients receiving implantable Doppler probe monitoring (intervention group, n = 30) with those having standard clinical care (control group). For the qualitative study, we will conduct semi-structured interviews with stakeholders (n = 12) recruited by purposive sampling to explore experiences of participants. All interviews will be audio recorded with verbatim transcription.

RESULTS

Our results will use the summarized quantitative data and descriptive statistics to determine differences between the groups. We will use CONSORT guidelines to determine the suitability of the research processes, availability of research resources, and potential challenges faced during the feasibility randomized controlled trial. We will use thematic analysis and NVivo software to analyze the acceptability of the intervention in clinical practice. We will compile the results according to the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research checklist.

CONCLUSIONS

The goal of this protocol is to determine the feasibility of an implantable Doppler probe monitoring device in kidney transplant recipients. The feasibility study will collect preliminary information, fill gaps in evidence, and test research processes for the pragmatic future randomized controlled trial. The template of this study is transferable to other transplant centers across the United Kingdom.

Iliofemoral Polytetrafluoroethylene Graft Interposition: A Rescue Procedure in External Iliac Artery Dissection to Restore Lower Limb Revascularization and Salvage Kidney Transplant

External iliac artery dissection is a catastrophic complication during kidney transplant surgery. We present a technically challenging case of external iliac artery dissection that occurred in severely atherosclerotic vessels of a high-risk patient receiving his third kidney transplant. The intimal dissection constituted by the upstream application of a vascular clamp during the preparatory dissection ofthe vessels and progressed rapidly along the iliofemoral axis. The external iliac artery was severely diseased and in an irreparable condition, hence ligated and removed. After a common iliac endarterectomy, an iliofemoral polytetrafluoroethylene vascular graft interposition was performed. The transplant kidney was anastomosed directly on the vascular graft. Satisfactory lower limb vascularization and kidney transplant perfusion were achieved withouttechnical difficulties. The patient had an uneventful recovery without complications. The kidney transplant recipient retained stable graft function at 6 months postoperatively. This rare case highlights the benefit of a surgical strategy in a vascular emergency that threatens the lower limb during a kidney transplant, and we emphasize the technical details of the procedure. As patients with extended indications are accepted onto the transplant waiting list, it is important for transplant surgeons to acquire surgical skills of vascular graft interposition. A postoperative blood flow monitoring device may be beneficial in high-risk kidney transplant cases.

Exploring Views and Expectations of Clinicians, Nurses, and Kidney Transplant Recipients Regarding Protocol Development of a Study to Investigate Feasibility of the Implantable Doppler Probe in Kidney Transplantation: Patient-Public Involvement Consultations

OBJECTIVES

The shortage of donor organs is the most limiting factor in kidney transplant practice today. New monitoring technologies are being investigated to reduce graft loss due to vascular complications. We assessed the feasibility of a novel blood flow monitoring device, the implantable Doppler probe, in kidney transplant surgery. This patient-public involvement consultation explored the views and expectations of the stakeholders (kidney transplant recipients, surgeons, clinicians, and nurses with direct experience of the implantable Doppler probe) on the protocol development of our feasibility study. Our objective was to improve the protocol, understand stakeholder perceptions regarding research in postoperative graft surveillance, and identify potential confounding factors to the research and challenges to implementation of implantable Doppler probe in clinical practice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted semi-structured interviews containing open-ended questions with 12 stakeholders. We performed thematic analysis of the data at the latent level by an inductive approach according to a 6-phase guide by Braun and Clarke using NVivo 12 software.

RESULTS

Three key themes emerged. (1) Experiences with the implantable Doppler probe as a monitoring device showed that it was well received by the patients; however, there was a clinical equipoise among the health care professionals. (2) Recognition of the need for research in the early postoperative graft monitoring displayed stakeholder understanding regarding the role of a blood flow monitoring device to improve surgical outcomes. (3) Recommendations for smooth conduct of the proposed study include suggestions for improvement of the study protocol, informative sessions for the patients and nurses, and innovative ideas to improve the monitoring device.

CONCLUSIONS

Patient-public involvement consultation was crucial for the research design of our proposed feasibility study. Useful strategies and a patient- centered approach were incorporated to mitigate the potential challenges to the conduct of the research.

The Use of the Implantable Doppler Probe as a Blood Flow Monitoring Device in Clinical Settings: A Narrative Review of the Evidence

OBJECTIVES

In the past decade, the implantable Doppler probe has been studied widely as a blood flow-monitoring device in reconstructive and transplant surgical specialities. Its utility as an effective postoperative monitoring technique is still debatable, with no clear guidelines in clinical practice. Here, we mapped the current evidence on the usefulness of the implantable Doppler probe as a blood flow-monitoring device. The objective was to present an up-to-date assessment of the benefits and limitations of using implantable Doppler probes in clinical and experimental clinical settings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a literature search using the Cochrane Library and Healthcare Databases Advanced Search and using implantable Doppler probe, transplant, graft, and flap as key words. The search yielded 184 studies, with 73 studies included after exclusions. We evaluated, synthesized, and summarized the evidence from the studies in tabular form.

RESULTS

There is clinical equipoise regarding the effectiveness of implantable Doppler probe as a flow sensing technique. The main reason is the lack of information and gaps in the evidence regarding the benefits and limitations of using implantable Doppler probes in clinical practice.

CONCLUSIONS

The implantable Doppler probe has the potentialto be used as an adjunctpostoperativeblood flow-monitoring device. However, keeping in view of technical limitations, its signals should be interpreted alongside traditional clinical assessment techniques to determine the patency of microvascular anastomosis. Although evidence in this review will inform clinical practice in transplant and reconstructive surgical specialties, a prospective randomized controlled study with a larger patient cohort is required to evaluate the effectiveness of this probe in clinical settings.

Survey of Patient's Experience of Altruistic Nondirected Kidney Donation

The scarcity of organs for donation is an ongoing issue. Change in legislative framework allows for altruistic donations in the UK, but, whereas the number of donations from deceased donors has increased, there has been a slow decline in altruistic living donors. The aim of this study was to review perspectives of altruistic nondirected kidney donors (ANDKD) at our center and outcome of all enquiries to inform service improvement and increase the numbers of donors. All enquiries by potential ANDKD at our center from September 2005 to September 2017 were analyzed. Donor assessment was performed as per the UK Guidelines, prior to obtaining Human Tissue Authority approval. The outcome of donation and results of questionnaires sent to 50 ANDKD were analyzed. During the period, 51 of the 180 enquiries (28.3%) resulted in kidney donation. Questionnaire responses were: 66% donors were retired; most heard about altruistic donation through media (60%); 72% thought psychological or psychiatric assessment was necessary; 95% found the information provided prior to donation adequate; 82% rated their overall experience as good/excellent; and 90% would recommend kidney donation to others. Thirteen of 50 donated kidneys were fed into the kidney exchange program. The mean ± standard error of the mean of the duration from human tissue authority approval to donation were 60.4 ± 5.4 and 131.2 ± 11.2 days, respectively (P = 0.00001). A significant proportion of enquiries for altruistic donation would result in donation but the assessment process needs to be quicker. ANDKD is useful way of priming the National Living Donor Kidney Sharing Scheme.

Living kidney donor assessment: Kidney length vs differential function

BACKGROUND

The key question in living kidney donor assessment is how best to determine the contribution of each kidney to overall renal function and guide selection of which kidney to donate, ensuring safety of procedure and good outcome for both recipient and donor. It is thought that a length difference > 2 cm may indicate significant difference in function and therefore need for measurement of differential function.

AIM

To determine the effect of using kidney length to decide which kidney to donate in a retrospective cohort of potential donors.

METHODS

All 333 potential living kidney donors between January 2009 and August 2018 who completed assessment were retrospectively evaluated. Donor assessment was performed as per United Kingdom guidelines. Data included age, sex, kidney length (cranio-caudal) obtained by computed tomography/ultrasono-graphy,51-chromium ethylenediamine tetraacetatic acid measured glomerular filtration rate, mercapto acetyl tri glycine split function and vascular anatomy. There were 48 exclusions due to inadequate data or incomplete investigations. Statistical analysis was performed using Excel pivot tables and GraphPad Prism. Correlation between kidney length and differential function was determined with Pearson's correlation coefficient.

RESULTS

Of 285 potential donors included in the study, there were 144 males (mean age 49.9 ± 14.75) and 141 females (mean age 51.2 ± 11.23). Overall, the Pearson's correlation between differences in length and divided function of kidney pairs was 0.1630, P = 0.0058. Of 73 with significant difference (> 10%) in divided function, 18 (24.7%) had no difference in kidney length; 54 (74%) had a difference of < 2 cm and only one of > 2 cm. Using a length difference of > 1 cm would only predict significant difference in divided function in 8/34 (23.5%) of cases. Using a difference of > 2 cm as cut off for performing split function would lead to false reassurance in 72 patients (6 had > 20% difference in divided function whereas 66 had 10%-20% difference).

CONCLUSION

Length difference between kidney pairs alone is not sufficient to replace measurement of divided function. This issue requires a randomised controlled trial to resolve it.

Adoption of transposed basilic vein as access for hemodialysis

The fistula first initiative has rekindled interest in transposition of basilic vein (TBV) in preference to arteriovenous grafts (AVG). TBV is considered to have advantages over AVG. The aim of this study was to analyze the outcome of TBVs in our center comparing them to a historically matched group of patients who had AVG. Thirty-two patients who underwent TBV as a vascular access procedure in Derriford Hospital between January 2010 and October 2014 were included in the study. The historical control group comprised 31 patients who had AVG inserted in the upper arm between January 1999 and December 2010. Patients who had looped AVG were excluded from the study. The primary failure rates were 22% (7/32) and 16% (5/31) for TBV and AVG, respectively (P = 0.7500). AVGs were associated with a higher incidence of infection and steal syndrome, but the differences were not statistically significant (P = 0.286 and P = 0.286, respectively). Twenty-two interventions were undertaken in the TBV group compared to 18 in the AVG group. This study shows that adoption of TBV reduces the need for AVG. To improve TBV access maturation and survival, it is necessary to consider adopting a selection criteria based on findings on vessel mapping.

Prosthetic Arteriovenous Grafts for Hemodialysis

Introduction

Prosthetic arteriovenous (AV) grafts are indicated in patients with failed AV fistula (AVF), exhausted superficial veins or unsuitable vessels. Increasing the proportion of prevalent hemodialysis (HD) patients using autogenous AVF should reduce the need for AV grafts and associated morbidity. This paper reviews the current role of prosthetic AV grafts in vascular access for HD.

Technical considerations

Prior to the insertion of a prosthetic AV graft, a comprehensive review of previous access procedures and full physical examination in addition to vessel mapping is required. Anastomotic technique should take into account the flow diffuser concept, graft geometry and an anastomotic angle of 15° in order to reduce the incidence of intimal hyperplasia.

Results

Many authors report 1 and 2-yr cumulative graft patency rates of 59–90% and 50–82%, respectively. The major drawbacks with synthetic grafts include: thrombosis, a five-fold increase in infection risk and steal syndrome. The choice between surgical and percutaneous methods of dealing with blocked AV grafts remains controversial, though percutaneous techniques are assuming an increasingly important role. Percutaneous strategies are successful in declotting access in 67–95% of cases. Stenting of stenotic lesions following thrombectomy improves secondary patency rates. Strategies for dealing with AV graft infection include antibiotic prophylaxis, partial, subtotal or total graft excision and the use of biological prosthesis.

Conclusions

Though more prone to complications than autogenous AVFs, AV grafts offer a short maturation period and are more amenable to thrombectomy by radiological or surgical means. Complex AV grafts may be appropriate in patients with exhausted access sites.

Survey of Surgeons Regarding Prophylactic Antibiotic Use in Inguinal Hernia Repair

PURPOSE

The use of prophylactic antibiotics in the mesh repair of inguinal hernias remains controversial. The aim of this study was to determine the perception of surgeons about surgical site infection and how this affects their clinical practice.

METHODS

A SurveyMonkey of general surgeons and senior surgical trainees was conducted via the local trust network and the questionnaire was displayed on the website of the Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland and Association of Surgeons in Training.

RESULTS

Eighty-one responses were received from surgeons who perform an average of 75 hernia repairs per year - the majority by open technique. Thirty-six (44.4%) used routine antibiotic prophylaxis, 40 (49.4%) selectively, and five (6.2%) not at all as the five surgeons who did not use antibiotics perceived their surgical site infection rate to be <1% and have never removed an infected mesh from a hernia wound. There was no clear difference between those who use prophylactic antibiotics routinely or selectively as the experience of mesh explantation is similar (56% versus 55% had 2-10 meshes removed respectively). Seventy-seven (95%) of surgeons felt a new specific set of guidelines was required.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the fact that in the absence of clear guidelines, most surgeons base their use of prophylactic antibiotics on their perceived risk or experience of surgical site infection. There is a strong need for a new set of guidelines to address the use of prophylactic antibiotics in groin hernia surgery.

Recurrent spontaneous pneumoperitoneum: A surgical dilemma

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36-year-old woman admitted with abdominal pain and fever found to have spontaneous pneumoperitoneum.

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Despite raised inflammatory markers, she declined surgical intervention citing successful conservative management of previous episodes.

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A trial of conservative management may be appropriate even in the presence of raised inflammatory markers.

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It must always be borne in mind that clinical deterioration represents an indication for surgical intervention.

Introduction

Spontaneous pneumoperitoneum describes free air within the peritoneal cavity in the absence of iatrogenic causes or a perforated viscus. This report describes a rare case in which despite raised inflammatory markers, a trial of conservative management proved adequate.

Case report

AM is a 36-year old woman who presented multiple times with abdominal pain and radiologically proven pneumoperitoneum. Her medical history included self catheterisation and cerebrovascular stenosis (Moyamoya disease), asymptomatic gallstones, livedo reticularis and peptic ulceration. On her index admission she exhibited raised inflammatory markers and fever. Despite these findings, emboldened by similar presentations in the past with no cause found, she declined surgical intervention with no untoward consequences.

Discussion

Most patients presenting with non-surgically induced pneumpoeritoneum display signs of peritonism including pyrexia and raised inflammatory markers. For such patients, surgical intervention is usually required to find and rectify the cause.

Conclusion

A trial of conservative management may be appropriate in patients with spontaneous pneumoperitoneum but it must always be borne in mind that clinical deterioration represents an indication for surgical intervention.

Total parathyroidectomy in patients with chronic kidney disease: Avoiding repeat surgery

Renal hyperparathyroidism (RHPT) is a common complication of renal failure and it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The aim of this study was to determine the patient characteristics which might predict persistent or recurrent hyperparathyroidism after surgery and to assess the long-term effect of unsuccessful surgery. This is a retrospective study of all chronic kidney disease patients who required a total parathyroidectomy (TP) because of failed medical management from January 1999 to December 2014. Patient characteristics, preoperative imaging, operative findings, and patient outcome were all studied. Differences between groups (dialysis-dependent and nondialysis-dependent; preoperative imaging and no imaging) were tested by the Chi-square statistic test and P <0.05 was regarded statistically significant. Eighty-eight patients underwent TP during this period and were followed up for a median of 35.5 months (range 1-119 months). Seventy (80%) had removal of all parathyroid glands with associated fall in parathyroid hormone level. There were no statistically significant differences in surgical success rates in neither the dialysis-dependent versus nondialysis-dependent groups nor the preoperative imaging versus no imaging groups. Two patients underwent repeat parathyroid surgery for persistent hyperparathyroidism and 16 were followed up without surgery. Preoperative imaging did not direct surgical management nor reduce surgical failure rate in this series. The long-term effects of pharmaceutical developments in this area are unknown but are likely to change indications for initial parathyroidectomy and reoperation. An agreed protocol is essential for the management of patients with RHPT.

Severe hemorrhage complicating early transplant nephrectomy due to sepsis

Compared to the general population, transplant patients receiving immuno- suppression have an increased risk of wound and systemic infection that might lead to hemorrhage. We present a case of severe bleeding from the external iliac artery secondary to a pelvic abscess following renal transplantation and transplant nephrectomy. A 73-year-old man received an extended criteria donor organ from a 49-year-old person who died from systemic sepsis. The patient bled from the Carrel's patch while awaiting a computed tomographic scan- guided drainage of an infected peritransplant collection. At exploration, a nonviable allograft surrounded by about 1 L of thick pus was removed. Bleeding from a 2 mm hole in the Carrel's patch was repaired by prolene suture as the external iliac vessels could not be mobilized due to a frozen pelvis. The patient died 72 h later from a massive bleed confirmed at postmortem to have originated from the external iliac artery distal to the anastomosis. Diversion of blood flow away from an affected area (with or without excision of the infected vessels) through a bypass procedure probably represents the best option in avoiding such sequelae.

Transplant nephrectomy - A single-center experience

Transplant nephrectomy (TN) is associated with significant morbidity and mortality and influences the outcome of subsequent renal transplantation. The aim of this study was to identify the reasons for TN in a single transplant center in the United Kingdom and to determine the complication rate, effect on relisting and re-transplantation. We studied all the TNs in our center from January 2000 to December 2011. Detailed information including cause of allograft failure and reason for TN were analyzed. Of 602 renal transplants performed at our center during the period of the study, 42 TNs were performed on 38 (6%) patients (24 men and 14 women). The median age of the patients at the time of transplantation who subsequently underwent TN was 56 years (range: 28-73 years) and 71% of the allografts were donated after circulatory death. The mean human leucocyte antigen mismatch for these patients was 2.3. The most commonly used immunosuppression was a combination of prednisolone, mycophenolate and tacrolimus, which was used in 50% of the patients. Twenty-five (60%) of the TNs in this series were for allografts failing during the first month of transplantation. The most common indication for the TN was graft thrombosis (50%), with an overall in-hospital mortality rate of 9.5% and a morbidity rate of 31%. Seven of 19 patients listed underwent successful re-transplantation. Although TN is associated with a risk of significant morbidity and mortality, it does not preclude from listing for re-transplantation. The difficulty of access to complete information about transplant failures and TN highlights the need for a national registry.

Current management of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), the most frequent cause of genetic renal disease affecting approximately 4 to 7 million individuals worldwide and accounting for 7%-15% of patients on renal replacement therapy, is a systemic disorder mainly involving the kidney but cysts can also occur in other organs such as the liver, pancreas, arachnoid membrane and seminal vesicles. Though computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were similar in evaluating 81% of cystic lesions of the kidney, MRI may depict septa, wall thickening or enhancement leading to upgrade in cyst classification that can affect management. A screening strategy for intracranial aneurysms would provide 1.0 additional year of life without neurological disability to a 20-year-old patient with ADPKD and reduce the financial impact on society of the disease. Current treatment strategies include reducing: cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels, cell proliferation and fluid secretion. Several randomised clinical trials (RCT) including mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors, somatostatin analogues and a vasopressin V2 receptor antagonist have been performed to study the effect of diverse drugs on growth of renal and hepatic cysts, and on deterioration of renal function. Prophylactic native nephrectomy is indicated in patients with a history of cyst infection or recurrent haemorrhage or to those in whom space must be made to implant the graft. The absence of large RCT on various aspects of the disease and its treatment leaves considerable uncertainty and ambiguity in many aspects of ADPKD patient care as it relates to end stage renal disease (ESRD). The outlook of patients with ADPKD is improving and is in fact much better than that for patients in ESRD due to other causes. This review highlights the need for well-structured RCTs as a first step towards trying newer interventions so as to develop updated clinical management guidelines.

Small bowel stricture as a late sequela of superior mesenteric vein thrombosis

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64-year-old man admitted with abdominal pain and rectal bleeding found to have thrombosis of portal and superior mesenteric veins on abdominal CT.

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Managed conservatively but returned seven months later with obstruction requiring segmental small bowel resection.

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Case demonstrates that mesenteric vein thrombosis can be reversed by effective anticoagulation.

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Patients escaping early bowel resection due to bowel infarction may still require resection later due to stricture.

Introduction

The increasing frequency of use of CT in patients with acute abdomen is likely to improve the diagnosis of rarely occurring conditions/causes such as superior mesenteric vein thrombosis (MVT). Despite its severe consequences, MVT often presents with nonspecific clinical features.

Presentation of case

AD, a 64-year-old man was an emergency admission with vague abdominal discomfort of two weeks duration, acute upper abdominal pain, loose stools, fresh rectal bleeding and vomiting. A contrast enhanced abdominal CT showed thrombosis of the proximal portal vein and the entire length of the superior mesenteric vein (SMV) with small bowel ischaemia extending from the terminal ileum to the mid jejunal loops. Tests for paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria and Janus kinase 2 mutation yielded negative results. AD was readmitted seven months later with small bowel obstruction requiring segmental small bowel resection with end-to-end anastomosis. Abdominal CT had shown complete resolution of MVT but a small bowel stricture.

Discussion

Thrombosis limited to mesenteric veins results in earlier and more frequent development of infarction compared to portal combined with mesenteric venous thrombosis. Most patients may be successfully treated with anti-coagulation therapy alone. However, surgery may be required to deal with intestinal infarction or late sequela of MVT.

Conclusion

This case demonstrates that MVT can be reversed by effective anticoagulation. However, the price paid for a mild to moderate effect on the bowel may be significant stricture later on. Patients escaping early bowel resection due to massive MVT leading to bowel infarction may still require resection later due to stricture.

Lower limb gigantism, lymphedema, and painful varicosities following a thigh vascular access graft

Prosthetic arteriovenous grafts (AVGs) are associated with greater morbidity than autogenous arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs), but their use is indicated when AVF formation is not possible. This report adds to the literature a case of lower limb gigantism, painful varicosities, and lymphedema following long-term use of AVG in the upper thigh. The patient's past medical history included renal transplantation on the same side well before the AVG was inserted and right leg deep vein thrombosis. Suspicion of AVG thrombosis was excluded by Doppler ultrasound, which demonstrated an access flow of 1700 mL/min. A computed tomography (CT) scan of the abdomen and pelvis did not identify the cause of her symptoms. Whereas functional incompetence of the iliac vein valve might be responsible for the varicosities, the extent of hypertrophy in this case raises the suspicion of lymphatic blockage possibly secondary to groin dissection undertaken at the time of graft insertion, in addition to the previous dissection at the time of transplantation. This case highlights the need for minimal groin dissection during AVG insertion, particularly in patients with a history of previous abdominopelvic surgery.

Renal transplantation from elderly living donors

Acceptance of elderly living kidney donors remains controversial due to the higher incidence of comorbidity and greater risk of postoperative complications. This is a review of publications in the English language between 2000 and 2013 about renal transplantation from elderly living donors to determine trends and effects of donation, and the outcomes of such transplantation. The last decade witnessed a 50% increase in living kidney donor transplants, with a disproportionate increase in donors >60 years. There is no accelerated loss of kidney function following donation, and the incidence of established renal failure (ERF) and hypertension among donors is similar to that of the general population. The overall incidence of ERF in living donors is about 0.134 per 1000 years. Elderly donors require rigorous assessment and should have a predicted glomerular filtration rate of at least 37.5 mL/min/1.73 m(2) at the age of 80. Though elderly donors had lower glomerular filtration rate before donation, proportionate decline after donation was similar in both young and elderly groups. The risks of delayed graft function, acute rejection, and graft failure in transplants from living donors >65 years are significantly higher than transplants from younger donors. A multicentred, long-term, and prospective database addressing the outcomes of kidneys from elderly living donors is recommended.

Impact of donor age on outcome of kidney transplantation from controlled donation after cardiac death

Previous reports regarding donation after cardiac death (DCD) have called for caution in extending the age of kidney donors beyond 60 years due to the risk of poor graft function. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of donor age on renal transplantation from DCD in one center. All DCD transplants from 2005 to 2009 were included in the study. Immunosuppression and recipient follow-up were as per unit protocol. Donor and recipient details were entered prospectively into a renal database and analyzed for graft outcome. Of the 147 renal transplants, 102 were from donors <60 years old and 45 were from donors ≥60 years old. The incidence of delayed graft function varied significantly according to donor-recipient age groups (P = 0.01). The mean glomerular filtration rate at 12 months was 50.3 mL/min for transplants from young donors compared with 39.3 mL/min for transplants from old donors (P = 0.001). The cumulative graft survival rates at 1 and 5 years were 88% and 79% for young donors, while for old donors these were 78% and 72%, respectively (P = 0.101). By transplanting kidneys from old DCD donors into elderly patients, their survival is improved compared with dialysis, and organs from younger donors are made available for younger recipients.

The impact of donor myelofibrosis on outcome of renal transplantation

In donors known to have medical conditions associated with kidney damage, caution is exercised when accepting donor kidneys. Myelofibrosis can affect kidney function in a variety of ways, but is not generally considered a contraindication to donation. We present the case of a 27-year-old woman with known myelofibrosis who died from an upper gastrointestinal bleed. After cardiac death, both the kidneys were donated. The first recipient was a 34-year-old lady with focal segmental glomerular sclerosis in her single pelvic kidney. There was delayed graft function and the kidney continued to function poorly due to a significant donor vascular disease. The second recipient was a 27-year-old man with posterior urethral valves. Similar donor vascular disease caused this transplant to fail. The kidney damage did not fit any pattern reported in myelofibrosis, but may represent part of a spectrum of damage seen with this disease. This case highlights the need for caution when accepting kidneys from donors with chronic medical conditions even when young, and may be of use to transplant teams when considering accepting future donations from patients with myelofibrosis.

Secondary extramedullary plasmacytoma causing small bowel intussusception in a patient with multiple myeloma - A case report

INTRODUCTION

Multiple myeloma is a monoclonal, immunoproliferative plasma-cell neoplasm of the B lymphoid cells. Extramedullary plasmacytoma is a type of plasma-cell neoplasm that can present as a primary tumour or secondary to another plasma-cell neoplasm, such as multiple myeloma. Secondary extramedullary plasmacytoma is usually noted in the advanced stages of the disease with ileum involvement being very rare.

PRESENTATION OF CASE

We report a rare case of a 58-year-old man, with known multiple myeloma, re-presenting with evidence of small bowel obstruction, secondary to an intussusception due to a malignant plasma cell deposit, which was successfully resected at laparotomy. Previous two similar admissions, prior to this index admission, failed to arrive at this difficult rare diagnosis.

DISCUSSION

Primary and secondary extramedullary plasmacytoma mainly affects the upper aero-digestive tract. Involvement of the ileum, as in this case, is a rare complication. Prognosis of secondary extramedullary plasmacytoma affecting the gastrointestinal tracts is unknown, due to the small number of cases reported in the literature, but suggestive of a poor prognosis. The role of surgery is often palliative to deal with resolvable life-threatening emergencies and where possible to prolong life.

CONCLUSION

The case adds to the current literature of the rare event of visceral secondary extramedullary plasmacytoma involving the gastrointestinal tract, in the course of multiple myeloma and highlights the need for a high index of suspicion for such uncommon complications, to avoid delay in diagnosis and treatment.

Effect of ureteric stents on urological infection and graft function following renal transplantation

AIM: To compare urological infections in patients with or without stents following transplantation and to determine the effect of such infections on graft function.

METHODS: All 285 recipients of kidney transplantation at our centre between 2006 and 2010 were included in the study. Detailed information including stent use and transplant function was collected prospectively and analysed retrospectively. The diagnosis of urinary tract infection was made on the basis of compatible symptoms supported by urinalysis and/or microbiological culture. Graft function, estimated glomerular filtration rate and creatinine at 6 mo and 12 mo, immediate graft function and infection rates were compared between those with a stent or without a stent.

RESULTS: Overall, 196 (183 during initial procedure, 13 at reoperation) patients were stented following transplantation. The overall urine leak rate was 4.3% (12/277) with no difference between those with or without stents - 7/183 vs 5/102, P = 0.746. Overall, 54% (99/183) of stented patients developed a urological infection compared to 38.1% (32/84) of those without stents (P = 0.0151). All 18 major urological infections occurred in those with stents. The use of stent (Wald χ² = 5.505, P = 0.019) and diabetes mellitus (Wald χ² = 5.197, P = 0.023) were found to have significant influence on urological infection rates on multivariate analysis. There were no deaths or graft losses due to infection. Stenting was associated with poorer transplant function at 12 mo.

CONCLUSION: Stents increase the risks of urological infections and have a detrimental effect on early to medium term renal transplant function.

Peritoneal dialysis associated infections: An update on diagnosis and management

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is associated with a high risk of infection of the peritoneum, subcutaneous tunnel and catheter exit site. Although quality standards demand an infection rate < 0.67 episodes/patient/year on dialysis, the reported overall rate of PD associated infection is 0.24-1.66 episodes/patient/year. It is estimated that for every 0.5-per-year increase in peritonitis rate, the risk of death increases by 4% and 18% of the episodes resulted in removal of the PD catheter and 3.5% resulted in death. Improved diagnosis, increased awareness of causative agents in addition to other measures will facilitate prompt management of PD associated infection and salvage of PD modality. The aims of this review are to determine the magnitude of the infection problem, identify possible risk factors and provide an update on the diagnosis and management of PD associated infection. Gram-positive cocci such as Staphylococcus epidermidis, other coagulase negative staphylococcoci, and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) are the most frequent aetiological agents of PD-associated peritonitis worldwide. Empiric antibiotic therapy must cover both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. However, use of systemic vancomycin and ciprofloxacin administration for example, is a simple and efficient first-line protocol antibiotic therapy for PD peritonitis - success rate of 77%. However, for fungal PD peritonitis, it is now standard practice to remove PD catheters in addition to antifungal treatment for a minimum of 3 wk and subsequent transfer to hemodialysis. To prevent PD associated infections, prophylactic antibiotic administration before catheter placement, adequate patient training, exit-site care, and treatment for S. aureus nasal carriage should be employed. Mupirocin treatment can reduce the risk of exit site infection by 46% but it cannot decrease the risk of peritonitis due to all organisms.

Kidney donation after cardiac death

There is continuing disparity between demand for and supply of kidneys for transplantation. This review describes the current state of kidney donation after cardiac death (DCD) and provides recommendations for a way forward. The conversion rate for potential DCD donors varies from 40%-80%. Compared to controlled DCD, uncontrolled DCD is more labour intensive, has a lower conversion rate and a higher discard rate. The super-rapid laparotomy technique involving direct aortic cannulation is preferred over in situ perfusion in controlled DCD donation and is associated with lower kidney discard rates, shorter warm ischaemia times and higher graft survival rates. DCD kidneys showed a 5.73-fold increase in the incidence of delayed graft function (DGF) and a higher primary non function rate compared to donation after brain death kidneys, but the long term graft function is equivalent between the two. The cold ischaemia time is a controllable factor that significantly influences the outcome of allografts, for example, limiting it to < 12 h markedly reduces DGF. DCD kidneys from donors < 50 function like standard criteria kidneys and should be viewed as such. As the majority of DCD kidneys are from controlled donation, incorporation of uncontrolled donation will expand the donor pool. Efforts to maximise the supply of kidneys from DCD include: implementing organ recovery from emergency department setting; improving family consent rate; utilising technological developments to optimise organs either prior to recovery from donors or during storage; improving organ allocation to ensure best utility; and improving viability testing to reduce primary non function.

Key issues in transplant tourism

Access to organ transplantation depends on national circumstances, and is partly determined by the cost of health care, availability of transplant services, the level of technical capacity and the availability of organs. Commercial transplantation is estimated to account for 5%-10% (3500-7000) of kidney transplants performed annually throughout the world. This review is to determine the state and outcome of renal transplantation associated with transplant tourism (TT) and the key challenges with such transplantation. The stakeholders of commercial transplantation include: patients on the waiting lists in developed countries or not on any list in developing countries; dialysis funding bodies; middlemen, hosting transplant centres; organ-exporting countries; and organ vendors. TT and commercial kidney transplants are associated with a high incidence of surgical complications, acute rejection and invasive infection which cause major morbidity and mortality. There are ethical and medical concerns regarding the management of recipients of organs from vendors. The growing demand for transplantation, the perceived failure of altruistic donation in providing enough organs has led to calls for a legalised market in organ procurement or regulated trial in incentives for donation. Developing transplant services worldwide has many benefits - improving results of transplantation as they would be performed legally, increasing the donor pool and making TT unnecessary. Meanwhile there is a need to re-examine intrinsic attitudes to TT bearing in mind the cultural and economic realities of globalisation. Perhaps the World Health Organization in conjunction with The Transplantation Society would set up a working party of stakeholders to study this matter in greater detail and make recommendations.

Caecal tumour masquerading as an appendicular mass

Appropriate management of appendix mass is based on an accurate diagnosis of the underlying pathology. This is a report of a complex patient presenting with an appendix mass, whose surgery was deferred due to severe co-morbidities and who later died from severe metastatic disease. A 65-year-old lady presented with right iliac fossa pain and a mass. She was treated for an appendix mass initially and when the mass failed to resolve after four weeks, she was thoroughly investigated for the possibility of a tumour. Severe co-morbities had a significant impact on her management as definitive surgery was delayed. She represented 10 months after the initial admission with small bowel obstruction and died of metastatic caecal cancer. Management of appendix mass must entail a careful approach to investigating and treatment with emphasis on early intervention if the mass does not resolve promptly. This will avoid delayed diagnosis, treatment and a detrimental impact on prognosis.

Transplant nephrectomy

About 10% of all renal allografts fail during the first year of transplantation and thereafter approximately 3%-5% yearly. Given that approximately 69 400 renal transplants are performed worldwide annually, the number of patients returning to dialysis following allograft failure is increasing. A failed transplant kidney, whether maintained by low dose immunosuppression or not, elicits an inflammatory response and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The risk for transplant nephrectomy (TN) is increased in patients who experienced multiple acute rejections prior to graft failure, develop chronic graft intolerance, sepsis, vascular complications and early graft failure. TN for late graft failure is associated with greater morbidity and mortality, bleeding being the leading cause of morbidity and infection the main cause of mortality. TN appears to be beneficial for survival on dialysis but detrimental to the outcome of subsequent transplantation by virtue of increased level of antibodies to mismatched antigens, increased rate of primary non function and delayed graft function. Many of the studies are characterized by a retrospective and univariate analysis of small numbers of patients. The lack of randomization in many studies introduced a selection bias and conclusions drawn from such studies should be applied with caution. Pending a randomised controlled trial on the role of TN in the management of transplant failure patients, it is prudent to remove failed symptomatic allografts and all grafts failing within 3 mo of transplantation, monitor inflammatory markers in patients with retained failed allografts and remove the allograft in the event of a significant increase in levels.

Renal transplantation in developing countries

Patients with established renal failure, living in developing countries, face many obstacles including lack of access to transplantation centers, quality and safety issues, and exploittation associated with transplant tourism. This review aims to determine the state and outcome of renal transplantation performed in developing countries and to recommend some solutions. The lack of suitable legislation and infrastructure has prevented growth of deceased donor programs; so, living donors have continued to be the major source of transplantable kidneys. Transplant tourism and commercial kidney transplants are associated with a high incidence of surgical complications, acute rejection and invasive infection, which cause major morbidity and mortality. Developing transplant services worldwide has many benefits - improving the results of transplantation as they would be performed legally, increasing the donor pool, making transplant tourism unnecessary and granting various governments the moral courage to fight unacceptable practices. A private-public partnership underpinned by transparency, public audit and accountability is a prerequisite for effective transplant services in the developing world. Finally, lack of dialysis facilities coupled with better outcomes in patients spending <6 months on dialysis prior to transplantation favor pre-emptive transplantation in developing countries.

Infection of hemodialysis arteriovenous grafts

PURPOSE

Prosthetic arteriovenous grafts (AVG) are bedeviled by significant infectious complications. This study was to determine the infectious complications of prosthetic AVG and review the relevant literature.

METHODS

All prosthetic AVG inserted between January 2000 to December 2007 were studied. Data on age, sex, date of graft insertion, indication for AVG, site of graft insertion, date of graft related infection, treatment and outcome for graft and patients were analyzed.

RESULTS

There were 84 AVG inserted into 58 patients. Thigh AVG accounted for 55% of cases whereas upper arm AVG was inserted in 39%. Thirteen (17.3%) AVG were associated with one or more episodes of infection. The infection rate for SynerGraft (50%) was statistically significantly different from that of PTFE (12%) - Yates' x2=6.164; df=1; p=0.013. The rate of infection was higher for thigh grafts (9/37) compared to other sites (4/34), but the difference was not statistically significant (Yates' x2=1.123; df=1; p=0.289). Only one death was directly related to AVG infection in this series.

CONCLUSION

Infectious complications of AVG require prompt surgical or radiological intervention to save life or access. The need to excise an infected graft completely is sometimes counterbalanced by the compelling need to provide vascular access for hemodialysis in a patient with limited access options.

Urinary tract infection mimicking acute mesenteric ischaemia in an immunocompromised patient

Bowel infarction due to acute mesenteric ischaemia (AMI) is an abdominal emergency with a high mortality rate. We report a case of exaggerated septic response to a urinary tract infection mimicking AMI in an immunosuppressed diabetic patient. A 56-year-old female was found collapsed at home with a 24 hour history of diarrhoea, a central abdominal pain and a complex past medical history. Examination showed her to be pyrexial, drowsy, profoundly dehydrated with evidence of cardiovascular collapse. She had a tender distended abdomen, raised inflammatory markers, raised lactate of 9.1 u/L and urinalysis was positive for leucocytes and nitrites. An abdominal computed tomography (CT) scan was reported to show small bowel ischaemia. She underwent a negative laparotomy and recovered following management in the intensive therapy unit. The negative laparotomy rate can be reduced by having abdominal CT performed and reported by an experienced radiologist or by the use of diagnostic laparoscopy.

Cold machine perfusion versus static cold storage of kidneys donated after cardiac death: a UK multicenter randomized controlled trial

One third of deceased donor kidneys for transplantation in the UK are donated following cardiac death (DCD). Such kidneys have a high rate of delayed graft function (DGF) following transplantation. We conducted a multicenter, randomized controlled trial to determine whether kidney preservation using cold, pulsatile machine perfusion (MP) was superior to simple cold storage (CS) for DCD kidneys. One kidney from each DCD donor was randomly allocated to CS, the other to MP. A sequential trial design was used with the primary endpoint being DGF, defined as the necessity for dialysis within the first 7 days following transplant. The trial was stopped when data were available for 45 pairs of kidneys. There was no difference in the incidence of DGF between kidneys assigned to MP or CS (58% vs. 56%, respectively), in the context of an asystolic period of 15 min and median cold ischemic times of 13.9 h for MP and 14.3 h for CS kidneys. Renal function at 3 and 12 months was similar between groups, as was graft and patient survival. For kidneys from controlled DCD donors (with mean cold ischemic times around 14 h), MP offers no advantage over CS, which is cheaper and more straightforward.

Acute presentation of intestinal malrotation in adults: a report of two cases

INTRODUCTION

Intestinal malrotation is a rare developmental abnormality occurring as a result of incomplete rotation during fetal life. It usually presents in the first few weeks of life, but may persist unrecognised into adult life. We report two interesting cases in elderly patients both characterised by a significant diagnostic challenge due to atypical clinical and radiological signs and in one case an unusual complication following laparotomy.

CASE REPORTS

The first case was a 64-year-old man initially treated for diverticulitis but at laparotomy was found to have malrotation of the midgut and a perforated left-sided appendicitis. The second case was a 76-year-old woman admitted with multiple fractures and increasing abdominal distension following a fall. Ten days after admission, she underwent right hemicolectomy to treat faecal peritonitis due to multiple caecal perforations complicating volvulus in the presence of midgut malrotation.

CONCLUSIONS

These cases illustrate challenges associated with managing patients with undiagnosed intestinal malrotation. Delayed diagnosis is a common feature in several case reports describing atypical presentation of appendicitis in patients with malrotation. While abdominal CT scan can remove much of the diagnostic uncertainty, the diagnosis of malrotation can be missed unless there is a high index of suspicion.

Urological complications of renal transplantation: Reducing the risk

Urological complications can have a significant effect on the outcome of renal transplantation including the loss of the graft. The aims of this study were to determine the incidence of urological complications occurring after kidney transplantation at our unit, and how the risk of complications can be reduced. All 398 renal transplantations performed at Derriford Hospital, Plymouth between August 1997 and December 2006 were reviewed. Twenty nine (7.3%) urological complications were noted with a median time to diagnosis of 8.5 days (range 1-950 days) following transplantation; 81% occurring within two weeks. Fourteen (48.3%) of these patients had identifiable risk factors; 10 patients required ureteric reimplantation, 6 had Boari flap reconstruction, and 3 underwent transurethral resection prostatectomy. One graft was lost to severe ureteric necrosis. Steps to reduce the risk of complications include avoiding damage to organs during retrieval, meticulous bench preparation including hydrodilating ureters to exclude ureteric injury and vigilance during the transplant procedure. Prompt and appropriate corrective surgery can diminish the effect of urological complications on graft survival.

Rejection of Permacol® mesh used in abdominal wall repair: A case report

Permacol^® mesh has shown promise when used in abdominal wall repair, especially in the presence of a contaminated surgical field. This biomaterial, derived from porcine dermis collagen, has proposed advantages over synthetic materials due to increased biocompatibility and reduced foreign body reaction within human tissues. However, we present a case report describing a patient who displayed rejection to a Permacol^® mesh when used in the repair of abdominal wound dehiscence following an emergency laparotomy. Review of the English language literature using PubMed and Medline, showed only two previously published cases of explantation of Permacol^® due to sepsis or wound breakdown. The authors believe this is the first case of severe foreign body reaction leading to rejection of Permacol^®. Both animal and human studies show conflicting evidence of biocompatibility. There are several reports of successful use of Permacol^® to repair complex incisional herniae or abdominal walls in the presence of significant contamination. It appears from the literature that Permacol^® is a promising material, but as we have demonstrated, it has the potential to evoke a foreign body reaction and rejection in certain subjects.

Management of patients with challenging vascular access needs

The proportion of patients on dialysis with multiple access procedures, failed transplant(s), or no suitable sites for conventional arteriovenous (AV) fistula is increasing. We report on 4 patients at our institution requiring unusual measures to achieve vascular access for dialysis. All 4 patients had temporary femoral vein catheters for dialysis, but 3 had tunneled femoral catheters, with 1 patient using this modality of access for 28 months. One patient who had 13 vascular access procedures developed collateral circulation that was amenable to a new autogenous AV fistula. Two patients died of causes unrelated to vascular access, whereas 1 died from infection of an access device. In patients with challenging vascular access requirements, the use of simple procedures such as the insertion of a tunneled femoral catheter should be considered. A thorough assessment must be made before each new access procedure as collateral circulation may present new options.

Early results of a controlled non-heart-beating kidney donor programme

BACKGROUND

We present our experience of a controlled non-heart beating donation (CNHBD) programme in a University Hospital.

METHODS

Data from all referrals for CNHBD between January 2005 and January 2008 were collected prospectively. Donor and recipient data were analysed and compared to other cadaveric and HBD transplants performed during the same period.

RESULTS

During the period, 79 donors were referred resulting in 35 proceeding to retrieval and 61 kidneys being successfully transplanted. The median time from withdrawal of therapy to asystole was 15 min (IQR 10.0-23.0). The median primary warm ischaemic time was 20 min (IQR 16.0-27.0). The mean cold ischaemia time was 16.6 +/- 4.21 h for CNHBD (16.6 +/- 5.91 for HBD) kidneys. Compared to HBD kidneys, CNHBD kidneys had more HLA mismatches and significantly more delayed graft function (44% versus 14%), and the mean time to halving of serum creatinine was significantly greater (12.8 versus 5 days). However, 1-year patient and graft survival (88% and 93%) were excellent and mean creatinine at 12 months for CNHB kidneys was not significantly different from HBD kidneys (141 mumol/l versus 131 mumol/l).

CONCLUSIONS

Structured implementation resulted in a successful CNHBD programme providing 61 successful renal transplants from 35 donors in 3 years-contributing to approximately 50% of the total number of cadaveric renal transplants during the period. At 12 months, CNHBD kidney graft function was equivalent to HBD organs.

Perforated appendicitis masquerading as acute pancreatitis in a morbidly obese patient

Diagnosis and treatment of common conditions in morbidly obese patients still pose a challenge to physicians and surgeons. Sometimes too much reliance is put on investigations that can lead to a misdiagnosis. This case demonstrates an obese woman admitted under the medical team with a presumed diagnosis of pneumonia, who was later found to have an acute abdomen and raised amylase, which led to an assumed diagnosis of pancreatitis. She died within 24 h of admission and post mortem confirmed the cause of death as systemic sepsis due to perforated appendicitis, with no evidence of pancreatitis. Significantly elevated serum amylase level may occur in non-pancreatitic acute abdomen.