Differentiating people who use cannabis heavily through latent class analysis

BACKGROUND

People who use cannabis daily or near-daily vary considerably in their daily dosage and use frequency, impacting both experienced effects and adverse consequences. This study identified heavy cannabis user groups according to consumption patterns and factors associated with class membership.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 380 Spanish residents (61.8% male; average age = 30.3 years) who had used cannabis ≥ 3 days/week throughout the past year. Participants were recruited through chain referral and cannabis social clubs. We applied latent class analysis (LCA) to cluster participants according to use intensity. LCA indicators included frequency of weekly cannabis use, joints smoked each day, cannabis dosage, and if cannabis was consumed throughout the day or only at specific times. Associations between class membership and socio-demographics, use patterns, motives, supply sources, adverse outcomes, and use of other substances were measured using ANOVA and chi-squared tests. Multinomial regression identified the factors associated with latent class membership.

RESULTS

Three latent classes (moderately heavy: 21.8%, heavy: 68.2%, very heavy: 10%) had average weekly cannabis intakes of 2.4, 5.5, and 18.3 g, respectively. Very heavy users were older ([Formula: see text]=17.77, p < 0.01), less educated [Formula: see text]=36.80, p < 0.001), and had used cannabis for longer (F = 4.62, p = 0.01). CAST scores (F = 26.51, p < 0.001) increased across the classes. The prevalence of past-month alcohol use was lower among the heaviest users ([Formula: see text]=5.95, p = 0.05). Cannabis was usually obtained from a club by very heavy users ([Formula: see text]=20.95, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

People who use cannabis heavily present three groups according to frequency and quantity of cannabis consumption. Use intensity is associated with increased cannabis-related problems. Differences among heavy users must be considered in harm reduction interventions in cannabis clubs and indicated prevention.

Culture and group-functional punishment behaviour

Humans often 'altruistically' punish non-cooperators in one-shot interactions among genetically unrelated individuals. This poses an evolutionary puzzle because altruistic punishment enforces cooperation norms that benefit the whole group but is costly for the punisher. One key explanation is that punishment follows a social-benefits logic: it is eminently normative and group-functional (drawing on cultural group selection theories). In contrast, mismatch-based deterrence theory argues that punishment serves the individual-level function of deterring mistreatment of oneself and one's allies, hinging upon the evolved human coalitional psychology. We conducted multilateral-cooperation experiments with a sample of Spanish Romani people (Gitanos or Calé) and the non-Gitano majority. The Gitanos represent a unique case study because they rely heavily on close kin-based networks and display a strong ethnic identity. We find that Gitano non-cooperators were not punished by co-ethnics in only-Gitano (ethnically) homogeneous groups but were harshly punished by other Gitanos and by non-Gitanos in ethnically mixed groups. Our findings suggest the existence of culture-specific motives for punishment: Gitanos, especially males, appear to use punishment to protect their ethnic identity, whereas non-Gitanos use punishment to protect a norm of universal cooperation. Only theories that consider normative, group-functional forces underlying punishment behaviour can explain our data.

Roma populations and health inequalities: a new perspective

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the emergence of "Roma health and wellbeing" as a focus of attention in European research and in policy and the possible detrimental consequences of action founded on a generic representation of "Roma health."

Design/methodology/approach

Based on discussions with and research conducted by scholars who work directly with Roma communities across European regions from a wide range of academic disciplines it suggests how future research might inform: a more nuanced understanding of the causes of poor health and wellbeing among diverse Roma populations and; actions that may have greater potential to improve the health and wellbeing among these populations.

Findings

In summary, the authors promote three types of research: first critical analyses that unpick the implications of current and past representations of "Roma" and "Roma health." Second, applied participatory research that meaningfully involves people from specific self-defined Roma populations to identify important issues for their health and wellbeing. Third, learning about processes that might impact on the health and wellbeing of Roma populations from research with other populations in similarly excluded situations.

Originality/value

The authors provide a multidisciplinary perspective to inform research that does not perpetuate further alienation and prejudice, but promotes urgent action to redress the social and health injustices experienced by diverse Roma populations across Europe.

The Evolution of Consanguineous Marriages in the Archdiocese of Granada, Spain (1900-1979)

In the 20th century Spain maintained some of the highest rates of consanguineous marriage in Europe. In many regions these rates were still high in the 1950s and 1960s but then decreased rapidly, and by the 1970s a generalized transformation in mating patterns was under way. In the following decades the marriage of persons closely related by birth became rare. Consanguinity and inbreeding have been much studied in Spain but almost exclusively in the central and northern regions of the country. This is the first study of a whole large diocese in the southern region of Andalusia. This article is based on the analysis of 15,440 records of consanguineous unions registered between 1900 and 1979 in the Archbishopric of Granada in Andalusia. In this period, the rate of consanguinity up to second cousins was 5.51%, and the mean coefficient of inbreeding, α, was 2.04 × 10^-3. There is a high range of variability within the research area: the rate of consanguinity was more than three times higher in rural areas (6.74%; α = 2.44 × 10^-3) than in the capital city (2.03%; α = 0.93 × 10^-3). There was a high frequency of unions between first cousins and first cousins once removed. These amounted to 35.3% and 13% of all consanguineous marriages, respectively, and contributed to 70% of α-values. Consanguinity here has been strongly related to local endogamy. Thus, 76% of all consanguineous couples were born in the same locality, and 89% resided in the same locality at marriage. By the end of the 1960s premarital migration increased and local endogamy started to decrease. On the other hand, inbreeding is inversely related to spatial endogamy. The more inbred couples, such as uncles-nieces (C12) or first cousins (C22), show significantly higher exogamy rates than second cousins (C33) and third cousins (C44), and higher rates of premarital migration. Neither males nor females in intrafamily unions seem to be significantly younger than those in nonconsanguineous unions. Considering their temporal evolution, consanguinity rates increased in the first third of the century, reaching a maximum in the late 1920s, when over 7.4% of all marriages were consanguineous (8.3% for the rural areas), and the resulting α-value was the highest of the century (α = 2.71 × 10^-3 for the whole diocese; α = 3.00 × 10^-3 for the rural areas). Rates of inbreeding remained high until the 1950s and decreased thereafter in a period of accelerated emigration to cities, urbanization, industrialization, and social modernization. Overall, levels of inbreeding are similar and sometimes larger than those found in dioceses in the northwest of Spain, although marriages between uncle and niece were less common. Some of the counties in the diocese had very high consanguinity levels, not only the isolated area of La Alpujarra, previously studied, but also other ecological and historical microregions (comarcas). These results indicate that the widely accepted north-south divisions of the Iberian Peninsula in terms of consanguinity and inbreeding patterns require considerable reevaluation.

Differences in the prevalence of depression in older Spanish Romany and non-Romany people and associated factors

AIM

Depression among older adults has serious implications, especially because suicide rates are higher in this group than in younger adults. Research has identified biological and social risk factors. However, studies addressing cultural and psychosocial factors associated with specific ethnic groups, such as Spanish Romani, are lacking. The objective of the present study was to establish the differential prevalence of depression among Romany and non-Romany people older than 55 years of age. It also aimed to explore how cultural, sociodemographic, and psychosocial factors predispose individuals to depression.

METHODS

A total of 181 people were interviewed. The sample consisted of 95 self-adscribed Romany individuals and 86 non-Romany individuals over the age of 55; the latter group served as the control group. We performed bifactorial univariate anova, epidemiological analysis using Epi Info software, and analysis of correlations between Geriatric Depression Scale scores and the different factors analyzed.

RESULTS

Significant differences in Geriatric Depression Scale score related to ethnicity and sex were found. Probable depression or depression in Romany men was four times higher than in non-Romany men. In Romany women, the risk was more than twice as high as in non-Romany women. Among the factors analyzed, income level, activity at home, and perception of being valued by family members showed significant differences between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

In short, we can state that Romany people develop symptoms of depression to a greater extent than non-Romany people, and although Romany women have a higher risk of depression, the differential effect of ethnicity is greater among Romany men. Income level, activity at home, and perception of being valued by family members are unambiguously related to ethnicity.

The legalization of cannabis derivatives in Spain: Hypothesis on a potential emerging market

First, this paper estimates the dimensions of the market for cannabis in Spain using data on the extent of consumption and the main patterns of use of consumers. Then the paper reviews the hypothetical production and distribution costs of these drugs in different production regimes under different legal conditions. The review shows that current prices of cannabis in the illegal market could be notably reduced if production and distribution of cannabis were decriminalized and even more if they were performed by legal enterprises. Thirdly, we examine the relationship between prices and consumption levels by analysing the price elasticity of demand. A fall in the prices of cannabis products will likely result in an increase in the number of users and in the total amount consumed. Lastly we consider several alternatives for the taxation of cannabis derivatives to counteract the likely fall in prices, and their pros and cons.

A Brief History of Cannabis Policies in Spain (1968–2003)

Spain was one of the first countries in Europe to decriminalize drug use and one of the last to embrace harm reduction. As such, Spain's drug policies often appear to be rather contradictory. In this paper we will review the current status of drug laws and the major drug policies that have been implemented in Spain over the last 25 years concerning cannabis; their demographic, political, and economic contexts; and their apparent consequences. We will follow a chronological approach that outlines every major change that occurred during that period while trying to provide some sociopolitical background. We have divided the period under study into four major phases. Each phase addresses a major political change or shift in the social response to drug-related problems. In this account, we will apply to cannabis policies the conceptual distinctions introduced by MacCoun and Reuter in their recent revision of alternative drug policies (2001), especially their tripartite division between punitive, depenalizing, and legalizing regimes and the associated processes of promotion and commercialization. One essential question that concerns the Spanish case is the relationship between legal changes, their implementation, and long-term oscillations in consumption rates.

Oculocutaneous albinism and consanguineous marriage among Spanish Gitanos or Calé--a study of 83 cases

This paper studies 83 cases of oculocutaneous albinism (OCA) in family networks of Gitanos in southeastern Spain, and analyzes their sustained inbreeding patterns and complex genealogical relationships. It is based in the family and genealogy reconstitution of the Gitano population of 22 contiguous localities using ethnographic and historical demography methods. The study found a prevalence of OCA among Gitanos in the area of about 1: 1,200. Most of the cases belong to three extended kin networks in which consanguineous marriages have been common for generations. In these networks there are other cases of visual and auditive congenital anomalies, and other birth defects such as brachydactily, polydactily, neurological defects, Potter Sequence, etc. In 61 OCA cases it was possible to trace inbreeding links with a depth of three to nine generations. For these cases the estimated alpha (average of the inbreeding coefficient, F) is 0.0222. Relationships between the parents of people affected are of three types: close, as between first or second cousins; distant, as between third or fourth cousins, and non-existent, as in mixed marriages. In most cases, however, persons with albinism are linked by multiple consanguineous links. Albinism seems to be a visible example of a high prevalence of birth defects in this minority, associated with founder effects, sustained inbreeding and high fertility rates. These conditions derive from Gitano's marriage preferences and pronatalist strategies. In turn, these strategies have to be related to the exclusion, persecution and segregation that Spanish Gypsies have suffered for centuries.

Patient and impatient punishers of free-riders

Costly punishment of cheaters who contribute little or nothing to a cooperating group has been extensively studied, as an effective means to enforce cooperation. The prevailing view is that individuals use punishment to retaliate against transgressions of moral standards such as fairness or equity. However, there is much debate regarding the psychological underpinnings of costly punishment. Some authors suggest that costly punishment must be a product of humans' capacity for reasoning, self-control and long-term planning, whereas others argue that it is the result of an impulsive, present-oriented emotional drive. Here, we explore the inter-temporal preferences of punishers in a multilateral cooperation game and show that both interpretations might be right, as we can identify two different types of punishment: punishment of free-riders by cooperators, which is predicted by patience (future orientation); and free-riders' punishment of other free-riders, which is predicted by impatience (present orientation). Therefore, the picture is more complex as punishment by free-riders probably comes not from a reaction against a moral transgression, but instead from a competitive, spiteful drive. Thus, punishment grounded on morals may be related to lasting or delayed psychological incentives, whereas punishment triggered by competitive desires may be linked to short-run aspirations. These results indicate that the individual's time horizon is relevant for the type of social behaviour she opts for. Integrating such differences in inter-temporal preferences and the social behaviour of agents might help to achieve a better understanding of how human cooperation and punishment behaviour has evolved.