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Frangoul H, Altshuler D, Cappellini MD, Chen YS, Domm J, Eustace BK, Foell J, de la Fuente J, Grupp S, Handgretinger R, Ho TW, Kattamis A, Kernytsky A, Lekstrom-Himes J, Li AM, Locatelli F, Mapara MY, de Montalembert M, Rondelli D, Sharma A, Sheth S, Soni S, Steinberg MH, Wall D, Yen A, Corbacioglu S. CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing for Sickle Cell Disease and β-Thalassemia. N Engl J Med 2021; 384:252-260. [PMID: 33283989 DOI: 10.1056/nejmoa2031054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 760] [Impact Index Per Article: 253.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Transfusion-dependent β-thalassemia (TDT) and sickle cell disease (SCD) are severe monogenic diseases with severe and potentially life-threatening manifestations. BCL11A is a transcription factor that represses γ-globin expression and fetal hemoglobin in erythroid cells. We performed electroporation of CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells obtained from healthy donors, with CRISPR-Cas9 targeting the BCL11A erythroid-specific enhancer. Approximately 80% of the alleles at this locus were modified, with no evidence of off-target editing. After undergoing myeloablation, two patients - one with TDT and the other with SCD - received autologous CD34+ cells edited with CRISPR-Cas9 targeting the same BCL11A enhancer. More than a year later, both patients had high levels of allelic editing in bone marrow and blood, increases in fetal hemoglobin that were distributed pancellularly, transfusion independence, and (in the patient with SCD) elimination of vaso-occlusive episodes. (Funded by CRISPR Therapeutics and Vertex Pharmaceuticals; ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT03655678 for CLIMB THAL-111 and NCT03745287 for CLIMB SCD-121.).
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Affiliation(s)
- Haydar Frangoul
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - David Altshuler
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - M Domenica Cappellini
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Yi-Shan Chen
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Jennifer Domm
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Brenda K Eustace
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Juergen Foell
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Josu de la Fuente
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Stephan Grupp
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Rupert Handgretinger
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Tony W Ho
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Antonis Kattamis
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Andrew Kernytsky
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Julie Lekstrom-Himes
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Amanda M Li
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Franco Locatelli
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Markus Y Mapara
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Mariane de Montalembert
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Damiano Rondelli
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Akshay Sharma
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Sujit Sheth
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Sandeep Soni
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Martin H Steinberg
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Donna Wall
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Angela Yen
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
| | - Selim Corbacioglu
- From the Sarah Cannon Center for Blood Cancer at the Children's Hospital at TriStar Centennial, Nashville (H.F., J.D.), and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis (A.S.) - both in Tennessee; Vertex Pharmaceuticals (D.A., B.K.E., J.L.-H., A.Y.) and Boston University School of Medicine (M.H.S.), Boston, and CRISPR Therapeutics, Cambridge (Y.-S.C., T.W.H., A. Kernytsky, S. Soni) - both in Massachusetts; the University of Milan, Milan (M.D.C.), and Ospedale Pediatrico Bambino Gesù Rome, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome (F.L.); the University of Regensburg, Regensburg (J. Foell, S.C.), and Children's University Hospital, University of Tübingen, Tübingen (R.H.) - both in Germany; Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, St. Mary's Hospital, London (J. de la Fuente); Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (S.G.); the University of Athens, Athens (A. Kattamis); BC Children's Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver (A.M.L.), and the Hospital for Sick Children-University of Toronto, Toronto (D.W.) - both in Canada; Columbia University (M.Y.M.) and the Joan and Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University (S. Sheth), New York; Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, University of Paris, Paris (M.M.); and the University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago (D.R.)
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11
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Zhang B, Maris CH, Foell J, Whitmire J, Niu L, Song J, Kwon BS, Vella AT, Ahmed R, Jacob J, Mittler RS. Immune suppression or enhancement by CD137 T cell costimulation during acute viral infection is time dependent. J Clin Invest 2007; 117:3029-41. [PMID: 17853940 PMCID: PMC1974869 DOI: 10.1172/jci32426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Accepted: 06/27/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
CD137 is expressed on activated T cells and ligands to this costimulatory molecule have clinical potential for amplifying CD8 T cell immunity to tumors and viruses, while suppressing CD4 autoimmune T cell responses. To understand the basis for this dichotomy in T cell function, CD4 and CD8 antiviral immunity was measured in lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) Armstrong- or A/PR8/34 influenza-infected mice injected with anti-CD137 mAbs. We found that the timing of administration of anti-CD137 mAbs profoundly altered the nature of the antiviral immune response during acute infection. Antiviral immunity progressed normally for the first 72 hours when the mAb was administered early in infection before undergoing complete collapse by day 8 postinfection. Anti-CD137-injected LCMV-infected mice became tolerant to, and persistently infected with, LCMV Armstrong. Elevated levels of IL-10 early in the response was key to the loss of CD4(+) T cells, whereas CD8(+) T cell deletion was dependent on a prolonged TNF-alpha response, IL-10, and upregulation of Fas. Blocking IL-10 function rescued CD4 antiviral immunity but not CD8(+) T cell deletion. Anti-CD137 treatment given beyond 72 hours after infection significantly enhanced antiviral immunity. Mice treated with anti-CD137 mAb 1 day before infection with A/PR8/34 virus experienced 80% mortality compared with 40% mortality of controls. When treatment was delayed until day 1 postinfection, 100% of the infected mice survived. These data show that anti-CD137 mAbs can induce T cell activation-induced cell death or enhance antiviral immunity depending on the timing of treatment, which may be important for vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benyue Zhang
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Charles H. Maris
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Juergen Foell
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jason Whitmire
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Liguo Niu
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jing Song
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Byoung S. Kwon
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Anthony T. Vella
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Rafi Ahmed
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Joshy Jacob
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Robert S. Mittler
- Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
Department of Hematology and Oncology, Martin Luther University, Halle-Wittenberg, Germany.
Department of Immunology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA.
Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology and Immunomodulation Research Center, University of Ulsan, Ulsan, Republic of Korea.
Department of Immunology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
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