Enhancement of awareness through feedback does not lead to interlimb transfer of obstacle crossing in virtual reality

Locomotor skill transfer is an essential feature of motor adaptation and represents the generalization of learned skills. We previously showed that gait adaptation after crossing virtual obstacles did not transfer to the untrained limb and suggested it may be due to missing feedback of performance. This study investigated whether providing feedback and an explicit goal during training would lead to transfer of adaptive skills to the untrained limb. Thirteen young adults crossed 50 virtual obstacles with one (trained) leg. Subsequently, they performed 50 trials with their other (transfer) leg upon notice about the side change. Visual feedback about crossing performance (toe clearance) was provided using a color scale. In addition, joint angles of the ankle, knee, and hip were calculated for the crossing legs. Toe clearance decreased with repeated obstacle crossing from 7.8 ± 2.7 cm to 4.6 ± 1.7 cm for the trained leg and from 6.8 ± 3.0 cm to 4.4 ± 2.0 cm (p < 0.05) for the transfer leg with similar adaptation rates between limbs. Toe clearance was significantly higher for the first trials of the transfer leg compared to the last trials of the training leg (p < 0.05). Furthermore, statistical parametric mapping revealed similar joint kinematics for trained and transfer legs in the initial training trials but differed in knee and hip joints when comparing the last trials of the trained leg with the first trials of the transfer leg. We concluded that locomotor skills acquired during a virtual obstacle crossing task are limb-specific and that enhanced awareness does not seem to improve interlimb transfer.

Stability recovery performance in adults over a wide age range: A multicentre reliability analysis using different lean-and-release test protocols

The ability to effectively increase the base of support is crucial to prevent from falling due to stability disturbances and has been commonly assessed using the forward-directed lean-and-release test. With this multicentre study we examined whether the assessment of stability recovery performance using two different forward lean-and-release test protocols is reliable in adults over a wide age range. Ninety-seven healthy adults (age from 21 to 80 years) were randomly assigned to one out of two lean angle protocols: gradual increase to maximal forward-lean angle (maximal lean angle; n = 43; seven participants were excluded due to marker artefacts) or predefined lean angle (single lean angle; n = 26; 21 participants needed to be excluded due to multiple stepping after release or marker artefacts). Both protocols were repeated after 0.5 h and 48 h to investigate intra- and inter-session reliability. Stability recovery performance was examined using the margin of stability at release (MoS_RL) and touchdown (MoS_TD) and increase in base of support (BoS_TD). Intraclass correlation coefficients (confidence intervals at 95%) for the maximal lean angle and for the single lean angle were respectively 0.93 (0.89-0.96) and 0.94 (0.89-0.97) in MoS_RL, 0.85 (0.77-0.91) and 0.67 (0.48-0.82) in MoS_TD and 0.88 (0.81-0.93) and 0.80 (0.66-0.90) in BoS_TD, with equivalence being revealed for each parameter between all three measurements (p < 0.01). We concluded that the assessment of stability recovery performance parameters in adults over a wide age range with the means of the forward lean-and-release test is reliable, independent of the used lean angle protocol.

Evidence that ageing does not influence the uniformity of the muscle-tendon unit adaptation in master sprinters

Differences in the adaptation processes between muscle and tendon in response to mechanical loading can lead to non-uniform mechanical properties within the muscle-tendon unit (MTU), potentially increasing injury risk. The current study analysed the mechanical properties of the triceps surae (TS) MTU in 10 young (YS; 22 ± 3 yrs) and 10 older (OS; age 65 ± 8 yrs; i.e. master) (inter)national level sprinters and 11 young recreationally active adults (YC; 23 ± 3 yrs) to detect possible non-uniformities in muscle and tendon adaptation due to habitual mechanical loading and ageing. Triceps surae muscle strength, tendon stiffness and maximal tendon strain were assessed in both legs during maximal voluntary isometric plantarflexion contractions via dynamometry and ultrasonography. Irrespective of the leg, OS and YC in comparison to YS demonstrated significantly (P < 0.05) lower TS muscle strength and tendon stiffness, with no differences between OS and YC. Furthermore, no group differences were detected in the maximal tendon strain (average of both legs: OS 3.7 ± 0.8%, YC 4.4 ± 0.8% and YS 4.3 ± 0.9%) as well as in the inter-limb symmetry indexes in muscle strength, tendon stiffness and maximal tendon strain (range across groups: -5.8 to 4.9%; negative value reflects higher value for the non-preferred leg). Thus, the findings provide no clear evidence for a disruption in the TS MTU uniformity in master sprinters, demonstrating that ageing tendons can maintain their integrity to meet the increased functional demand due to elite sports.

Obstacle avoidance training in virtual environments leads to limb-specific locomotor adaptations but not to interlimb transfer in healthy young adults

Obstacle avoidance is one of the skills required in coping with challenging situations encountered during walking. This study examined adaptation in gait stability and its interlimb transfer in a virtual obstacle avoidance task. Twelve young adults walked on a treadmill while wearing a virtual reality headset with their body state represented in the virtual environment. At random times, but always at foot touchdown, 50 virtual obstacles of constant size appeared 0.8 m in front of the participant requiring a step over with the right leg. Early, mid and late adaptation phases were investigated by pooling data from trials 1-3, 24-26 and 48-50. One left-leg obstacle appearing after 50 right-leg trials was used to investigate interlimb transfer. Toe clearance and the anteroposterior margin of stability (MoS) at foot touchdown were calculated for the stepping leg. Toe clearance decreased over repeated practice between early and late phases from 0.13 ± 0.05 m to 0.09 ± 0.04 m (mean ± SD, p < 0.05). MoS increased from 0.05 ± 0.02 m to 0.08 ± 0.02 m (p < 0.05) between early and late phases, with no significant differences between mid and late phases. No differences were found in toe clearance and MoS between the practiced right leg for early phase and the single trial of the left leg. Obstacle avoidance during walking in a virtual environment stimulated adaptive gait improvements that were related in a nonlinear manner to practice dose, though such gait adaptations seemed to be limited in their transferability between limbs.

The role of muscle strength on tendon adaptability in old age

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to determine: (1) the relationship between ankle plantarflexor muscle strength and Achilles tendon (AT) biomechanical properties in older female adults, and (2) whether muscle strength asymmetries between the individually dominant and non-dominant legs in the above subject group were accompanied by inter-limb AT size differences.

METHODS

The maximal generated AT force, AT stiffness, AT Young's modulus, and AT cross-sectional area (CSA) along its length were determined for both legs in 30 women (65 ± 7 years) using dynamometry, ultrasonography, and magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

No between-leg differences in triceps surae muscle strength were identified between dominant (2798 ± 566 N) and non-dominant limb (2667 ± 512 N). The AT CSA increased gradually in the proximo-distal direction, with no differences between the legs. There was a significant correlation (P < 0.05) of maximal AT force with AT stiffness (r = 0.500) and Young's modulus (r = 0.414), but only a tendency with the mean AT CSA. However, region-specific analysis revealed a significant relationship between maximal AT force and the proximal part of the AT, indicating that this region is more likely to display morphological adaptations following an increase in muscle strength in older adults.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that maximal force-generation capabilities play a more important role in the variation of AT stiffness and material properties than in tendon CSA, suggesting that exercise-induced increases in muscle strength in older adults may lead to changes in tendon stiffness foremost due to alterations in material rather than in its size.

Retention of gait stability improvements over 1.5 years in older adults: effects of perturbation exposure and triceps surae neuromuscular exercise

The plantarflexors play a crucial role in recovery from sudden disturbances to gait. The objective of this study was to investigate whether medium (months)- or long(years)-term exercise-induced enhancement of triceps surae (TS) neuromuscular capacities affects older adults' ability to retain improvements in reactive gait stability during perturbed walking acquired from perturbation training sessions. Thirty-four adult women (65 ± 7 yr) were recruited to a perturbation training group ( n = 13) or a group that additionally completed 14 wk of TS neuromuscular exercise ( n = 21), 12 of whom continued with the exercise for 1.5 yr. The margin of stability (MoS) was analyzed at touchdown of the perturbed step and the first recovery step following eight separate unexpected trip perturbations during treadmill walking. TS muscle-tendon unit mechanical properties and motor skill performance were assessed with ultrasonography and dynamometry. Two perturbation training sessions (baseline and after 14 wk) caused an improvement in the reactive gait stability to the perturbations (increased MoS) in both groups. The perturbation training group retained the reactive gait stability improvements acquired over 14 wk and over 1.5 yr, with a minor decay over time. Despite the improvements in TS capacities in the additional exercise group, no benefits for the reactive gait stability following perturbations were identified. Therefore, older adults' neuromotor system shows rapid plasticity to repeated unexpected perturbations and an ability to retain these adaptations in reactive gait stability over a long time period, but an additional exercise-related enhancement of TS capacities seems not to further improve these effects. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Older adults' neuromotor system shows rapid plasticity to repeated exposure to unexpected perturbations to gait and an ability to retain the majority of these adaptations in reactive recovery responses over a prolonged time period of 1.5 yr. However, an additional exercise-related enhancement of TS neuromuscular capacities is not necessarily transferred to the recovery behavior during unexpected perturbations to gait in older adults.

Strain and elongation of the human gastrocnemius tendon and aponeurosis during maximal plantarflexion effort

Regarding the strain and elongation distribution along the tendon and aponeurosis the literature is reporting different findings. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine in vivo the elongation and the strain of the human gastrocnemius medialis tendon and aponeurosis simultaneously at the same trial during maximal voluntary plantarflexion efforts. Twelve subjects participated in the study. The subjects performed isometric maximal voluntary contractions of their left leg on a Biodex-dynamometer. The kinematics of the leg were recorded using the Vicon 624 system with 8 cameras operating at 120 Hz. Two ultrasound probes were used to visualise the tendon (myotendinous junction region) and the distal aponeurosis of the gastrocnemius medialis respectively. The main findings were: (a) the absolute elongation of the gastrocnemius medialis tendon was different to that of the aponeurosis, (b) the strain of the gastrocnemius medialis tendon did not differ from the strain of the aponeurosis, (c) during the "isometric" plantarflexion the ankle angle exhibited significant changes, and (d) the non-rigidity of the dynamometer arm-foot system and the coactivity of the tibialis anterior both have a significant influence on the moment exerted at the ankle joint. Thus the strain of the human gastrocnemius medialis tendon and aponeurosis estimated in vivo using two-dimensional ultrasonography is uniform. To calculate the elongation of the whole tendon it is necessary to multiply the strain calculated for the examined part of the tendon by the total length of the tendon.