Walking-and Running and Jumping-with Dinosaurs and Their Cousins, Viewed Through the Lens of Evolutionary Biomechanics

Archosauria diversified throughout the Triassic Period before experiencing two mass extinctions near its end ∼201 Mya, leaving only the crocodile-lineage (Crocodylomorpha) and bird-lineage (Dinosauria) as survivors; along with the pterosaurian flying reptiles. About 50 years ago, the "locomotor superiority hypothesis" (LSH) proposed that dinosaurs ultimately dominated by the Early Jurassic Period because their locomotion was superior to other archosaurs'. This idea has been debated continuously since, with taxonomic and morphological analyses suggesting dinosaurs were "lucky" rather than surviving due to being biologically superior. However, the LSH has never been tested biomechanically. Here we present integration of experimental data from locomotion in extant archosaurs with inverse and predictive simulations of the same behaviours using musculoskeletal models, showing that we can reliably predict how extant archosaurs walk, run and jump. These simulations have been guiding predictive simulations of extinct archosaurs to estimate how they moved, and we show our progress in that endeavour. The musculoskeletal models used in these simulations can also be used for simpler analyses of form and function such as muscle moment arms, which inform us about more basic biomechanical similarities and differences between archosaurs. Placing all these data into an evolutionary and biomechanical context, we take a fresh look at the LSH as part of a critical review of competing hypotheses for why dinosaurs (and a few other archosaur clades) survived the Late Triassic extinctions. Early dinosaurs had some quantifiable differences in locomotor function and performance vs. some other archosaurs, but other derived dinosaurian features (e.g., metabolic or growth rates, ventilatory abilities) are not necessarily mutually exclusive from the LSH; or maybe even an opportunistic replacement hypothesis; in explaining dinosaurs' success.

Effects of the herbal preparation STW 5-II on in vitro muscle activity in the guinea pig stomach

BACKGROUND

STW 5 is a combination of nine medicinal herbal extracts and used to treat functional gastrointestinal disorders including functional dyspepsia. It has a region-specific effect by relaxing the proximal and contracting the distal stomach. The research combination STW 5-II (Iberogast^® Advance) lacks three herbal extracts but seems clinically as effective as STW 5. However, the action of STW 5-II on gastric motility is unknown.

METHODS

In vitro circular and longitudinal muscle tone and contractility were recorded from guinea pig gastric fundus and antrum with isometric force transducers.

KEY RESULTS

STW 5-II decreased concentration-dependently (64-512 µg/ml) the tone of circular and longitudinal muscle strips from the fundus. In contrast, STW 5-II increased concentration-dependently contraction amplitude in antral circular and longitudinal muscle. The effects were region-dependent but comparable in the two muscle layers. Application of 512 µg STW 5 or STW 5-II revealed comparable effects in the fundus and antrum circular and longitudinal muscle strips.

CONCLUSIONS AND INTERFERENCES

STW 5-II had a region-specific effect and relaxed the proximal stomach but increased the contractility in the antrum. It was as effective as STW 5 which may explain its comparable clinical effects in treating functional dyspepsia. Impaired accommodation may be normalized through relaxation of the fundus, while the motility-promoting effects leading to an increase in antral motility may activate the gastric pump.

Mosquito-fungus interactions and antifungal immunity

The mosquito immune system has evolved in the presence of continuous encounters with fungi that range from food to foes. Herein, we review the field of mosquito-fungal interactions, providing an overview of current knowledge and topics of interest. Mosquitoes encounter fungi in their aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Mosquito larvae are exposed to fungi on plant detritus, within the water column, and at the water surface. Adult mosquitoes are exposed to fungi during indoor and outdoor resting, blood and sugar feeding, mating, and oviposition. Fungi enter the mosquito body through different routes, including ingestion and through active or passive breaches in the cuticle. Oral uptake of fungi can be beneficial to mosquitoes, as yeasts hold nutritional value and support larval development. However, ingestion of or surface contact with fungal entomopathogens leads to colonization of the mosquito with often lethal consequences to the host. The mosquito immune system recognizes fungi and mounts cellular and humoral immune responses in the hemocoel, and possibly epithelial immune responses in the gut. These responses are regulated transcriptionally through multiple signal transduction pathways. Proteolytic protease cascades provide additional regulation of antifungal immunity. Together, these immune responses provide an efficient barrier to fungal infections, which need to be overcome by entomopathogens. Therefore, fungi constitute an excellent tool to examine the molecular underpinnings of mosquito immunity and to identify novel antifungal peptides. In addition, recent advances in mycobiome analyses can now be used to examine the contribution of fungi to various mosquito traits, including vector competence.

High prevalence and functional effects of serum antineuronal antibodies in patients with gastrointestinal disorders

BACKGROUND

Antineuronal antibodies can be associated with both gastrointestinal (GI) and brain disorders. For example, antibodies against the potassium channel subunit dipeptidyl-peptidase-like protein-6 (DPPX) bind to neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and myenteric plexus and cause encephalitis, commonly preceded by severe unspecific GI symptoms. We therefore investigated the prevalence of antineuronal antibodies indicative of treatable autoimmune CNS etiologies in GI patients.

METHODS

Serum samples of 107 patients (Crohn's disease n = 42, ulcerative colitis n = 16, irritable bowel syndrome n = 13, others n = 36) and 44 healthy controls were screened for anti-DPPX and further antineuronal antibodies using immunofluorescence on rat brain and intestine and cell-based assays. Functional effects of high-titer reactive sera were assessed in organ bath and Ussing chamber experiments and compared to non-reactive patient sera.

KEY RESULTS

Twenty-one of 107 patients (19.6%) had antibodies against the enteric nervous system, and 22 (20.6%) had anti-CNS antibodies, thus significantly exceeding frequencies in healthy controls (4.5% each). Screening on cell-based assays excluded established antienteric antibodies. Antibody-positive sera were not associated with motility effects in organ bath experiments. However, they induced significant, tetrodotoxin (TTX)-insensitive secretion in Ussing chambers compared to antibody-negative sera.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

Antineuronal antibodies were significantly more frequent in GI patients and associated with functional effects on bowel secretion. Future studies will determine whether such antibodies indicate patients who might benefit from additional antibody-directed therapies. However, well-characterized encephalitis-related autoantibodies such as against DPPX were not detected, underlining their rarity in routine cohorts.

Tryptase potentiates enteric nerve activation by histamine and serotonin: Relevance for the effects of mucosal biopsy supernatants from irritable bowel syndrome patients

BACKGROUND

We previously showed that mucosal biopsy supernatants from irritable bowel syndrome patients activated neurons despite low concentrations of tryptase, histamine, and serotonin which individually would not cause spike discharge. We studied the potentiating responses between these mediators on excitability of enteric neurons.

METHODS

Calcium-imaging was performed using the calcium-sensitive dye Fluo-4 AM in human submucous plexus preparations from 45 individuals. Histamine, serotonin, and tryptase were applied alone and in combinations to evaluate nerve activation which was assessed by analyzing increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺ ]_i ), the proportion of responding neurons and the product of both defined as Ca-neuroindex (NI). Protease activated receptor (PAR) 2 activating peptide, PAR2 antagonist and the serine protease-inhibitor FUT-175 were used to particularly investigate the role of proteases.

KEY RESULTS

Histamine or serotonin (1 μmol/L each) evoked only few small responses (median NI [25%/75%]: 0 [0/148]; 85 [0/705] respectively). Their combined application evoked statistically similar responses (216 [21/651]). Addition of the PAR2 activator tryptase induced a significantly higher Ca-NI (1401 [867/4075]) compared to individual application of tryptase or to coapplied histamine and serotonin. This synergistic potentiation was neither mimicked by PAR2 activating peptide nor reversed by the PAR2 antagonist GB83, but abolished by FUT-175.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

We observed synergistic potentiation between histamine, serotonin, and tryptase in enteric neurons, which is mediated by proteolytic activity rather than PAR2 activation. This explained neuronal activation by a cocktail of these mediators despite their low concentrations and despite a relatively small PAR2-mediated response in human submucous neurons.

Functional Validation of Apoptosis Genes IAP1 and DRONC in Midgut Tissue of the Biting Midge Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) by RNAi

Culicoides biting midges transmit multiple ruminant viruses, including bluetongue virus and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus, causing significant economic burden worldwide. To further enhance current control techniques, understanding vector-virus interactions within the midge is critical. We developed previously a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) delivery method to induce RNA interference (RNAi) for targeted gene knockdown in adult Culicoides sonorensis Wirth & Jones. Here, we confirm the C. sonorensis inhibitor of apoptosis 1 (CsIAP1) as an anti-apoptotic functional ortholog of IAP1 in Drosophila, identify the ortholog of the Drosophila initiator caspase DRONC (CsDRONC), and demonstrate that injection of dsRNA into the hemocoel can be used for targeted knockdown in the midgut in C. sonorensis. We observed CsIAP1 transcript reduction in whole midges, with highest transcript reduction in midgut tissues. IAP1knockdown (kd) resulted in pro-apoptotic caspase activation in midgut tissues. In IAP1kd midges, midgut tissue integrity and size were severely compromised. This phenotype, as well as reduced longevity, was partially reverted by co-RNAi suppression of CsDRONC and CsIAP1. Therefore, RNAi can be directed to the midgut of C. sonorensis, the initial site of virus infection, using dsRNA injection into the hemocoel. In addition, we provide evidence that the core apoptosis pathway is conserved in C. sonorensis and can be experimentally activated in the midgut to reduce longevity in C. sonorensis. This study thus paves the way for future reverse genetic analyses of midgut-virus interactions in C. sonorensis, including the putative antiviral properties of RNAi and apoptosis pathways.

Many de novo donor-specific antibodies recognize β2 -microglobulin-free, but not intact HLA heterodimers

Solid‐phase single antigen bead (SAB) assays are standard of care for detection and identification of donor‐specific antibody (DSA) in patients who receive solid organ transplantation (SOT). While several studies have documented the reproducibility and sensitivity of SAB testing for DSA, there are little data available concerning its specificity. This study describes the identification of antibodies to β₂‐microglobulin‐free human leukocyte antigen (β₂‐m‐fHLA) heavy chains on SAB arrays and provides a reassessment of the clinical relevance of DSA testing by this platform. Post‐transplant sera from 55 patients who were positive for de novo donor‐specific antibodies on a SAB solid‐phase immunoassay were tested under denaturing conditions in order to identify antibodies reactive with β₂‐m‐fHLA or native HLA (nHLA). Antibodies to β₂‐m‐fHLA were present in nearly half of patients being monitored in the post‐transplant period. The frequency of antibodies to β₂‐m‐fHLA was similar among DSA and HLA antigens that were irrelevant to the transplant (non‐DSA). Among the seven patients with clinical or pathologic antibody‐mediated rejection (AMR), none had antibodies to β₂‐m‐fHLA exclusively; thus, the clinical relevance of β₂‐m‐fHLA is unclear. Our data suggests that SAB testing produces false positive reactions due to the presence of β₂‐m‐fHLA and these can lead to inappropriate assignment of unacceptable antigens during transplant listing and possibly inaccurate identification of DSA in the post‐transplant period.

Study of filamentation with a high power high repetition rate ps laser at 1.03 µm

We study the propagation of intense, high repetition rate laser pulses of picosecond duration at 1.03 µm central wavelength through air. Evidence of filamentation is obtained from measurements of the beam profile as a function of distance, from photoemission imaging and from spatially resolved sonometric recordings. Good agreement is found with numerical simulations. Simulations reveal an important self shortening of the pulse duration, suggesting that laser pulses with few optical cycles could be obtained via double filamentation. An important lowering of the voltage required to induce guided electric discharges between charged electrodes is measured at high laser pulse repetition rate.

Reasons for Attempted Suicide in Europe: Prevalence, Associated Factors, and Risk of Repetition

To examine the prevalence of specific reasons for attempted suicide, factors associated with them, and whether reasons for attempted suicide influence risk of repetition. As part of the Monitoring Suicide in Europe (MONSUE) project, data on 4,683 suicide attempters from nine European countries were collected. Independence tests were used to study the influence of age, gender, and other factors on reported reasons. We examined risk of repetition using logistic regression analysis. Interpersonal conflict was common for all patients except those widowed, living alone, or retired. Mental health problems were prevalent among over 45 year-olds, patients unable to work, and patients with a history of at least three suicide attempts. Financial difficulties were cited more often by patients who were 45-64 years old, divorced or separated, living with children only, and unemployed. Close bereavement/serious illness and own physical illness were associated with those over 65 years of age. Two reasons for suicide attempt, interpersonal conflict and mental health problems, were associated with increased risk of repetition independent of other factors. Suicide attempters have a multitude of problems of varying prevalence depending on age, gender, and other factors. They present a range of clinical profiles that require a multidisciplinary response.

Neuropharmacology of purinergic receptors in human submucous plexus: Involvement of P2X₁, P2X₂, P2X₃ channels, P2Y and A₃ metabotropic receptors in neurotransmission

RATIONALE

The role of purinergic signaling in human ENS is not well understood. We sought to further characterize the neuropharmacology of purinergic receptors in human ENS and test the hypothesis that endogenous purines are critical regulators of neurotransmission.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

LSCM-Fluo-4/(Ca(2+))-imaging of postsynaptic Ca(2+) transients (PSCaTs) was used as a reporter of synaptic transmission evoked by fiber tract electrical stimulation in human SMP surgical preparations. Pharmacological analysis of purinergic signaling was done in 1,556 neurons (identified by HuC/D-immunoreactivity) in 235 ganglia from 107 patients; P2XR-immunoreactivity was evaluated in 19 patients. Real-time MSORT (Di-8-ANEPPS) imaging tested effects of adenosine on fast excitatory synaptic potentials (fEPSPs).

RESULTS

Synaptic transmission is sensitive to pharmacological manipulations that alter accumulation of extracellular purines: Apyrase blocks PSCaTs in a majority of neurons. An ecto-NTPDase-inhibitor 6-N,N-diethyl-D-β,γ-dibromomethyleneATP or adenosine deaminase augments PSCaTs. Blockade of reuptake/deamination of eADO inhibits PSCaTs. Adenosine inhibits fEPSPs and PSCaTs (IC50 = 25 µM), sensitive to MRS1220-antagonism (A3AR). A P2Y agonist ADPβS inhibits PSCaTs (IC50 = 111 nM) in neurons without stimulatory ADPbS responses (EC50 = 960 nM). ATP or a P2X1,2,2/3 (α,β-MeATP) agonist evokes fast, slow, biphasic Ca(2+) transients or Ca(2+) oscillations (ATP,EC50 = 400 mM). PSCaTs are sensitive to P2X1 antagonist NF279. Low (20 nM) or high (5 µM) concentrations of P2X antagonist TNP-ATP block PSCaTs in different neurons; proportions of neurons with P2XR-immunoreactivity follow the order P2X2 > P2X1 >> P2X3; P2X1 + P2X2 and P2X3 + P2X2 are co-localized. RT-PCR identified mRNA-transcripts for P2X1-7, P2Y1,2,12-14R.

CONCLUSIONS

Purines are critical regulators of neurotransmission in human ENS. Purinergic signaling involves P2X1, P2X2, P2X3 channels, P2X1 + P2X2 co-localization and inhibitory P2Y or A3 receptors. These are potential novel therapeutic targets for neurogastroenterology.

Inducing RNA interference in the arbovirus vector, Culicoides sonorensis

Biting midges in the genus Culicoides are important vectors of arboviral diseases, including epizootic haemorrhagic disease, bluetongue and most likely Schmallenberg, which cause significant economic burdens worldwide. Research on these vectors has been hindered by the lack of a sequenced genome, the difficulty of consistent culturing of certain species and the absence of molecular techniques such as RNA interference (RNAi). Here, we report the establishment of RNAi as a research tool for the adult midge, Culicoides sonorensis. Based on previous research and transcriptome analysis, which revealed putative small interfering RNA pathway member orthologues, we hypothesized that adult C. sonorensis midges have the molecular machinery needed to perform RNA silencing. Injection of control double-stranded RNA targeting green fluorescent protein (dsGFP), into the haemocoel of 2-3-day-old adult female midges resulted in survival curves that support virus transmission. dsRNA injection targeting the newly identified C. sonorensis inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 (CsIAP1) orthologue resulted in a 40% decrease of transcript levels and 73% shorter median survivals as compared with dsGFP-injected controls. These results reveal the conserved function of IAP1. Importantly, they also demonstrate the feasibility of RNAi by dsRNA injection in adult midges, which will greatly facilitate studies of the underlying mechanisms of vector competence in C. sonorensis.

Effect of hyoscine butylbromide (Buscopan®) on cholinergic pathways in the human intestine

BACKGROUND

Hyoscine butylbromide (HBB, Buscopan(®) ) is clinically used to treat intestinal cramps and visceral pain. Various studies, mainly on animal tissues, suggested that its antimuscarinic action is responsible for its spasmolytic effect. However, functional in vitro studies with human tissue have not been performed so far.

METHODS

We wanted to provide a comprehensive study on the mode of action of HBB in human intestinal samples and investigated HBB (1 nmol L(-1) -10 μmol L(-1)) effects on muscle activity with isometric force transducers and calcium imaging, on epithelial secretion with Ussing chamber technique and on enteric neurons using fast neuroimaging.

KEY RESULTS

Hyoscine butylbromide concentration dependently reduced muscle contractions, calcium mobilization, and epithelial secretion induced by the muscarinic agonist bethanechol with IC50 values of 429, 121, and 224 nmol L(-1), respectively. Forskolin-induced secretion was not altered by HBB. Cholinergic muscarinic muscle and epithelial responses evoked by electrical nerve stimulation were inhibited by 1-10 μmol L(-1) HBB. Moreover, HBB significantly reduced the bethanechol-induced action potential discharge in enteric neurons. Interestingly, we observed that high concentrations of HBB (10 μmol L(-1)) moderately decreased nicotinic receptor-mediated secretion, motility, and nerve activity.

CONCLUSIONS & INFERENCES

The results demonstrated the strong antimuscarinic action of HBB whereas the nicotinic antagonism at higher concentrations plays at most a moderate modulatory role. The muscle relaxing effect of HBB and its inhibition of muscarinic nerve activation likely explain its clinical use as an antispasmodic drug. Our results further highlight a so far unknown antisecretory action of HBB which warrants further clinical studies on its use in secretory disorders.

Characterization of alunite supergroup minerals by Raman spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy has been used to study the molecular structure of different natural minerals of the alunite supergroup (AB(3)(XO(4))(2)(OH)(6)), with A=K(+), Na(+), Ca(2+), Sr(2+), Ba(2+), B=Al(3+), Fe(3+) and X=S(6+), P(5+). The influence of the ions, in A-, B- and X-sites, is highlighted in the Raman spectra by variations in the position of certain vibrations and is discussed in association with published crystallographic data in order to describe the observed differences. It was found that A-site substitutions are characterized by wavenumber shifts of the vibrations involving hydroxyl groups. The positions of these vibrational bands vary linearly with the ionic radius of the ions in this site. B-site substitutions induce shifts of all bands due to structural modifications that lead to differences in the chemical environment around the hydroxyl and XO(4) groups and changes in B-O bond lengths. A correlation showed that these shifts correlate well with the ionic radii of the B-ions. The spectra of compounds containing both sulfate and phosphate groups are described by numerous vibration bands caused by a complex elemental composition and a symmetry change of the XO(4) groups. This study has also made it possible to generalize substitution effects on the wavenumbers of several vibrations and show that Raman spectroscopy could be a powerful tool for identifying and distinguishing minerals of the alunite supergroup.

Fast calcium and voltage-sensitive dye imaging in enteric neurones reveal calcium peaks associated with single action potential discharge

Slow changes in [Ca(2+)](i) reflect increased neuronal activity. Our study demonstrates that single-trial fast [Ca(2+)](i) imaging (≥200 Hz sampling rate) revealed peaks each of which are associated with single spike discharge recorded by consecutive voltage-sensitive dye (VSD) imaging in enteric neurones and nerve fibres. Fast [Ca(2+)](i) imaging also revealed subthreshold fast excitatory postsynaptic potentials. Nicotine-evoked [Ca(2+)](i) peaks were reduced by -conotoxin and blocked by ruthenium red or tetrodotoxin. Fast [Ca(2+)](i) imaging can be used to directly record single action potentials in enteric neurones. [Ca(2+)](i) peaks required opening of voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels as well as Ca(2+) release from intracellular stores.

The multi-herbal drug STW 5 (Iberogast) has prosecretory action in the human intestine

There is growing evidence that STW 5 (Iberogast), fixed combination of hydroethanolic herbal extracts), besides being effective in functional dyspepsia, also improves symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Clinical data indicate that modulation of mucosal secretion is a promising approach to treat intestinal disorders associated with IBS. We therefore explored the effect of STW 5 on secretion in the human intestine and the mechanisms by which it acts. The Ussing chamber technique was used to measure mucosal secretion in human intestinal mucosa/submucosa preparations and in human epithelial cell line T84. In addition, we recorded STW 5 effects on human enteric neurons with voltage sensitive dye imaging. In human tissue and T84 cells STW 5 induced a dose-dependent increase in ion secretion that was significantly reduced by the Na-K-Cl cotransporter blocker bumetanide, the adenylate cyclase inhibitor MDL-12 330, the non-specific and selective cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) inhibitors glibenclamide and CFTR(inh)-172, respectively, and the blocker of calcium dependent Cl(-) channels (ClCa) SITS (4-acetamido-4-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2-disulphonic acid). It was unaffected by amiloride, a blocker of epithelial Na(+) channels. In human tissue, the nerve blocker tetrodotoxin significantly suppressed the STW 5 response. STW 5 evoked an increased spike discharge in 51% of human submucous neurons. Results suggest that STW 5 is a secretogogue in the human intestine by direct epithelial actions and through activation of enteric neurons. The prosecretory effect is due to increased epithelial Cl(-) fluxes via CFTR and Ca-dependent ClCa channels. STW 5 may be a novel option to treat secretory disorders associated with IBS and constipation.

Repairability of cross-linked biopolymers

Repair of biopolymers is a critical issue, especially with aged restorations. Obtaining a chemical bond to the repair surface might solve this problem. We hypothesized that certain repair liquids are suitable to establish a strong bond to an artificially aged dimethacrylate-based biopolymer for temporary restorations. Specimens made of a self-curing temporary crown-and-bridge material were prepared and thermocycled for 7 days (5000x, 5-55 degrees C). Cylinders made of light-curing composites (n=10) were bonded onto the specimen surface, either after grinding or after the application of 4 different experimental repair liquids (Bis-GMA:TEGDMA mixture=bonding, methylmethacrylate=MMA, bonding & acetone, bonding & MMA). A shear bond strength test was performed 24 hrs after repair. The highest bond strength was obtained with the bonding & acetone liquid (20.1+/-2.2 MPa). The use of MMA significantly affected the bond strength (6.8+/-1.9 MPa). MMA is inadequate as a repair liquid on aged composite-based biopolymers.

Motor control of the stomach

Gastric motility is controlled at various levels including the enteric nervous system (ENS). The gastric ENS is involved in the regulation of accommodation reflexes as well as of the peristaltic waves which are responsible for grinding and emptying. Polarised projections consisting of ascending cholinergic and descending nitrergic muscle motor neurons make up the hard wired circuits for control of muscle activity. In an isolated flat sheet preparation of the gastric corpus we investigated stretch evoked responses. The responses at the site of the distension as well as proximal and distal to the distension consisted of a cholinergic excitation whereas a nitrergic inhibition was only observed at the site of the distension stimulus. At all sites the responses were significantly reduced by the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin suggesting a neural component. In addition the nicotinic blocker hexamethonium reduced the responses at all sites to the same degree as tetrodotoxin which indicated the strong contribution of ascending and descending cholinergic interneurons. The reflexes of isolated gastric corpus preparations to distension are dominated by excitatory responses. Only the muscle response at the site of distension exhibited an inhibitory response which is usually dominated by the cholinergic excitatory response.

Syringolin A, a new plant elicitor from the phytopathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae, inhibits the proliferation of neuroblastoma and ovarian cancer cells and induces apoptosis

Syringolin A is a new plant elicitor produced by the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae. The goal of this study was to investigate whether syringolin A exhibits anti-proliferative properties in cancer cells. The treatment of human neuroblastoma (NB) cells (SK-N-SH and LAN-1) and human ovarian cancer cells (SKOV3) with syringolin A (0-100 microm) inhibited cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. The IC(50) (50% inhibition) for each cell line ranged between 20 microm and 25 microm. In SK-N-SH cells, the treatment with 20 microm syringolin A led to a rapid (24 h) increase of the apoptosis-associated tumour suppressor protein p53. In addition, we found that the treatment of SK-N-SH cells caused severe morphological changes after 48 h such as rounding of cells and loss of adherence, both conditions observed during apoptosis. The induction of apoptosis by syringolin A was confirmed by both poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage and annexin V assay. Taken together, we show for the first time that the natural product syringolin A exhibits anti-proliferative activity and induces apoptosis. Syringolin A and structurally modified syringolin A derivatives may serve as new lead compounds for the development of novel anticancer drugs.

Diabetes Mellitus Increases Adverse Neurocognitive Outcome after Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting Surgery

BACKGROUND

Cognitive dysfunction is a well known problem in the postoperative period in cardiac surgery. We hypothesised that the incidence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in patients with diabetes mellitus is higher than in the nondiabetic patient.

METHODS

Thirty-four patients (11 females, 23 males) with a mean age of 62.44 +/- 7.52 undergoing on-pump CABG surgery were studied in a prospective manner. Fourteen patients had treated diabetes mellitus (Group I) and 20 were nondiabetic (Group II). All patients were operated upon by the same surgeon under standardised intra- and perioperative conditions. Patients with preoperative dementia (MMSE < 24) or advanced cerebrovascular disease were excluded. An extensive set of tests examining emotional and cognitive state, stress-coping and quality of life were performed preoperatively. Emotional and cognitive variables were assessed daily from day two to five postoperatively.

RESULTS

All tests showed comparable results between the groups preoperatively. The perfusion lasted considerably longer in Group I (102.5 +/- 16.61 vs. 83.9 +/- 14.1 min) as did the cross clamping (64.21 +/- 18.31 vs. 51.75 +/- 10.88 min). Postoperative cognitive outcome was significantly worse in Group I with regard to the Stroop Test (29.46 +/- 8.6 vs. 24.01 +/- 6.23, P = 0.02), the Abbreviated Mental Test (8.04 +/- 0.71 vs. 8.68 +/- 0.78, P = 0.02) and the Trial Making Test (35.72 +/- 11.38 vs. 29.3 +/- 7.77 P = 0.04). These differences persisted even after adjustment for perfusion- and cross-clamping time.

CONCLUSION

The cognitive outcome in the early postoperative period is worse in diabetic patients compared to nondiabetics. Speed-related cognitive functions are mainly affected. Probably, this reflects a different physiology of cerebral perfusion during extracorporeal circulation. Optimising perfusion strategies to improve the outcome of diabetic patients should be the next topic of study.

Region-specific effects of STW 5 (Iberogast) and its components in gastric fundus, corpus and antrum

Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a disorder that involves impaired gastric accommodation, antral hypomotility, and upper abdominal pain. The herbal drug STW 5 (Iberogast) is used to successfully treat FD patients. Here, we report in vitro data revealing the mode of action of STW 5 and its individual herbal extracts on gastric motility. STW 5 evoked a relaxation of the proximal stomach but increased antral motility. Both effects are myogenic. The extracts of Angelica root, chamomile flower and liquorice root mimicked the inhibitory effects in the proximal stomach whereas the extracts of greater celandine herb, Melissa leaf, caraway fruit and bitter candy tuft increased motility of the proximal stomach. All extracts increased motility in the antrum comparable to the effects of STW 5. We conclude that the differential effects of STW 5 on proximal and distal stomach motor activity are not caused by solely spasmolytic or anti-spasmolytic effects of the individual components. It is suggested that the individual extracts target transduction mechanisms that are specifically expressed in the proximal vs. distal stomach. We present a rationale for the differential effect of STW 5 which is a result of the combined actions of its individual components and reason that the inhibitory effects in the proximal and the excitatory effects in the distal stomach may contribute to symptom relief in FD patients treated with STW 5 (Iberogast).

Early age-related cognitive impairment in mice lacking cannabinoid CB1 receptors

The molecular mechanisms contributing to the normal age-related decline of cognitive functions or to pathological learning and memory impairment are largely unknown. We demonstrate here that young mice (6-7 weeks) with a genetic deletion of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor performed as well as WT mice, or often better, in a number of learning and memory paradigms, including animal models of skill-learning, partner recognition, and operant conditioning. In contrast, the performance of mature mice (3-5 months) lacking CB1 receptors was much worse than that of age-matched WT animals. In most tests, these mice performed at the same level as old animals (14-17 months), suggesting that the decline in cognitive functions is accelerated in the absence of CB1 receptors. This rapid decline in CB1-deficient animals is accompanied by a loss of neurons in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus.

Mosquito immunity against Plasmodium

Understanding the molecular mechanisms of the innate immune responses of Anopheles gambiae against Plasmodium parasites is of great importance for current efforts to develop novel strategies for malaria disease control. The parasite undergoes substantial stage-specific losses during its development in the mosquito, which in some cases lead to complete refractoriness of the mosquito against the parasite. The underlying genetics of refractoriness are complex and multifactorial. Completion of the genome sequence of An. gambiae 2 years ago, together with the development of DNA microarrays in this species and the extension of the RNAi technique to adult mosquitoes, has allowed comparative and functional genomic approaches of the mosquito innate immune system. A variety of factors were shown to negatively affect the development of Plasmodium parasites in the mosquito, in some cases leading to complete transmission blockage. In addition, mosquito factors have been identified that play positive roles and are required for successful transmission of the parasite. These findings indicate a highly complex interplay between parasite and vector. Research is continuing to identify new factors involved in this interaction and to decipher the interplay of these molecules and their regulation.

Human mast cell mediator cocktail excites neurons in human and guinea-pig enteric nervous system

Neuroimmune interactions are an integral part of gut physiology and involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory and functional bowel disorders. Mast cells and their mediators are important conveyors in the communication from the innate enteric immune system to the enteric nervous system (ENS). However, it is not known whether a mediator cocktail released from activated human mast cells affects neural activity in the ENS. We used the Multi-Site Optical Recording Technique to image single cell activity in guinea-pig and human ENS after application of a mast cell mediator cocktail (MCMC) that was released from isolated human intestinal mucosa mast cells stimulated by IgE-receptor cross-linking. Local application of MCMC onto individual ganglia evoked an excitatory response consisting of action potential discharge. This excitatory response occurred in 31%, 38% or 11% neurons of guinea-pig submucous plexus, human submucous plexus, or guinea-pig myenteric plexus, respectively. Compound action potentials from nerve fibres or fast excitatory synaptic inputs were not affected by MCMC. This study demonstrates immunoneural signalling in the human gut and revealed for the first time that an MCMC released from stimulated human intestinal mast cells induces excitatory actions in the human and guinea-pig ENS.

Acute toxicity investigations of ester-based lubricants by using biotests with algae and bacteria

Although ester-based lubricants are ecologically acceptable due to their good biodegradability, there are still some environmental ecotoxicological impacts that have to be considered. Information on the acute ecotoxicological behavior of lubricants is obtained in this work using several single species bioassays. In previous studies it was observed that lubricating fluids containing additives for the enhancement of their technical performance were more problematic than base fluids especially with respect to algae growth inhibition. In order to clarify the influence of additives, the anti-wear additive tri-n-butyl phosphate was tested. It was very toxic to algae though not to bacteria. Additionally, a mixture of this additive with a base fluid is characterized. Despite the high toxicity of the single additive, the water extract of the mixture of tri-n-butyl phosphate with hydraulic base fluid caused almost no toxicity. Therefore, tri-n-butyl phosphate cannot explain the effect observed for the toxicity of water extracts of the commercially available lubricants.

Development of automated high-throughput ecotoxicity and genotoxicity test systems and fields of application

Bioassays like growth inhibition and genotoxicity assays are frequently used for the characterization of chemicals and contaminated environmental samples. In this work two standardized bioassays are automated completely using newly developed liquid handling stations and robotics. A high-throughput algal growth inhibition assay prototype is set up and optimized in cooperation with Hoelle & Huettner AG (Tuebingen, Germany) and Polygen GmbH (Langen, Germany). A software package for both the control of the test system and for data evaluation has been developed (Biolane Supervisor, BioLane Manager HTT). The applicability of the prototype is demonstrated by testing reference compounds with the automated assay in parallel with the Erlenmeyer flask assay. It is shown that EC50-values of chemicals do not differ significantly when incubation parameters like homogeneity of light intensity, temperature and evaporation during 72 hours of incubation are optimized. The umu-genotoxicity test is automated completely using a "RoboSeq 4204 SE" pipetting station (MWG AG, Ebersberg, Germany) equipped with two shakers, microplate photometer, four pipettes, stacker for ten microplates and incubation cabin with temperature regulation. As a result of miniaturization and automation large numbers of toxicants and far more treatments and parallels can be tested and, additionally, only low sample volumes are needed.

Toxin B of Clostridium difficile activates human VIP submucosal neurons, in part via an IL-1beta-dependent pathway

This study investigated whether toxin B of Clostridium difficile can activate human submucosal neurons and the involved pathways. Isolated segments of human colon were placed in organ culture for 3 h in the presence of toxin B or IL-1beta. Whole mounts of internal submucosal plexus were stained with antibodies against c-Fos, neuron-specific enolase (NSE), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and substance P (SP). The membrane potential (Vm) response of submucosal neurons to local application of toxin B and IL-1beta was determined by a multisite optical recording technique. Toxin B (0.1 to 10 ng/ml) increased the proportion of c-Fos-positive neurons dose dependently compared with the control. In the presence of toxin B (10 ng/ml), most c-Fos-positive neurons were immunoreactive for VIP (79.8 +/- 22.5%) but only 19.4 +/- 14.0% for SP. Toxin B induced a rapid rise in IL-1beta mRNA level and a sixfold increase in IL-1beta protein in supernatant after 3 h of incubation. c-Fos expression induced by toxin B was reduced dose dependently by IL-1 receptor antagonist (0.1-10 ng/ml). IL-1beta significantly increased c-Fos expression in submucosal neurons compared with the control (34.2 +/- 10.1 vs. 5.1 +/- 1.3% of NSE neurons). Microejection of toxin B had no effect on the Vm of enteric neurons. Evidence of a direct excitatory effect of IL-1beta on Vm was detected in a minority of enteric neurons. Therefore, toxin B of C. difficile activates VIP-positive submucosal neurons, at least in part, via an indirect IL-1beta-dependent pathway.

The C-terminus of the Hermes transposase contains a protein multimerization domain

Transposase activity that mediates the mobility of class II transposable elements, is most commonly initiated by the assembly of higher order synaptic complexes, called transpososomes. The formation of these complexes, that contain the transposable element's DNA as well as two or more molecules of the transposase, is dependent on interactions between transposase molecules. Using the yeast Two-Hybrid system, we were able to identify three regions mediating multimerization of the Hermes transposase, an element used for germline transformation of insects belonging to the hAT family of transposable elements. One region facilitating protein binding of Hermes transposase molecules was found within the first 252 amino acids of the transposase. The second region was located at the C-terminus of the transposase, and was found to be specific for Hermes transposase multimerization. Amino acids 551-569 were not only required for multimerization but were also necessary for transposition of the element. The third region was located between amino acids 253 and 380 and was found to eliminate the non-specific protein binding ability of the N-terminal protein interaction region but was required for the specific protein binding ability of the C-terminal region of the transposase. Five point mutations affecting the structural integrity of the C-terminal multimerization region abolished or significantly reduced transpositional activity. The same region had been previously identified to mediate dimerization in Activator (Ac), another hAT element, indicating that hAT transposase multimerization is likely to be a prerequisite for mobility of their elements.