Evaluation of a discrimination training procedure for establishing praise as a reinforcer

We evaluated the effects of a discrimination training procedure for establishing praise as a reinforcer for three children with autism spectrum disorder. After establishing two praise words as discriminative stimuli and two nonsense words as S-deltas, we evaluated whether the stimuli then functioned as reinforcers by presenting each stimulus as a consequence for a new response. The results demonstrated that previously neutral praise words functioned as reinforcers and nonsense words did not. As in previous studies on establishing reinforcers, the effects were transitory, and praise words did not continue to function as reinforcers after repeated exposure without discrimination training. Recommendations are provided for future research and maintaining reinforcement effects.

Identifying and Training Skill Acquisition Protocol Development: A Preliminary Investigation

According to the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB), services commonly provided by behavior analysts include writing and revising protocols for teaching new skills. To our knowledge, there are currently no published, peer-reviewed articles or texts focused on developing skill acquisition protocols. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of a computer-based instruction (CBI) tutorial on acquisition of skills related to writing an individualized protocol based on a research article. The tutorial was developed based on a variety of expert samples recruited by the experimenters. Fourteen students enrolled in a university behavior analysis program participated in a matched-subjects group experimental design. The training was separated into three modules on protocol components, identifying important information in a research article, and individualizing the protocol for a learner. Training was self-paced and completed in the absence of a trainer. The training included the following behavioral skills training components: instruction, modeling, individualized pacing, opportunities to actively respond and rehearse skills, and frequent specific feedback. The tutorial resulted in a significant increase in accuracy of protocols during posttest when compared to a textual training manual. This study contributes to the literature by applying CBI training procedures to a complex skill, as well as evaluating training in the absence of a trainer, and provides a technology for clinicians to learn effectively and efficiently to write a technological, individualized, and empirically based protocol.

A Preliminary Evaluation of the Effects of a Contingency Management + Deposit Contract Intervention on Problematic Smartphone Use With College Students

Problematic smartphone use (PSU) is smartphone usage that is, in some way, damaging to the user. PSU represents a growing public health concern that could be addressed via behavioral intervention. We recruited six college students who reported negative side effects of smartphone use and sought to decrease their PSU. The effects of a contingency management (CM) + deposit contract intervention on PSU was evaluated. During the CM + deposit contract condition, participants deposited $40 and had the opportunity to earn back their entire deposit by meeting daily smartphone usage goals. To promote adherence to study protocols, participants also had the opportunity to earn a $20 cooperation bonus. For all participants, lower levels of PSU were observed during intervention relative to baseline. The CM + deposit contract intervention produced consistent decreases in PSU for four participants (mean reduction percentages above 40% were obtained) and had inconsistent effects on PSU for two participants (mean reduction percentages below 20%). Maintenance of intervention effects was limited for all participants. Although preliminary, results suggest that CM + deposit contract interventions could be a viable, low-cost approach to addressing PSU. Potential explanations for our findings and avenues for future research are discussed.

A translational evaluation of component skills for the establishment of multiply controlled intraverbals

Intraverbal behavior is a type of verbal behavior in which the response form has no point-to-point correspondence with its verbal stimulus. However, the form and occurrence of most intraverbals is under the control of multiple variables. Establishing this form of multiple control may depend on a variety of preestablished skills. The purpose of Experiment 1 was to evaluate these potential prerequisites with adult participants using a multiple probe design. The results suggest that training was not required for each putative prerequisite. In Experiment 2, probes for all skills were conducted following convergent intraverbal probes. The results showed that convergent intraverbals only emerged when proficiency of each skill was demonstrated. Finally, Experiment 3 evaluated alternating training of multiple tact and intraverbal categorization. The results showed that this procedure was effective for half of the participants.

Training medical students to teach safe infant sleep environments using pyramidal behavioral skills training

Medical personnel play a critical role in caregiver safe infant sleep education. However, training outcomes in the safe infant sleep training literature have been mixed. Promising approaches that warrant further investigation are the use of behavioral skills training and pyramidal training. The current study consisted of two experiments. Experiment 1 extended Carrow et al. (2020) and Vladescu et al. (2020) by teaching medical students safe infant sleep practices using behavioral skills training. Discriminated responding was examined across trained and untrained environmental arrangements using a multiple-baseline design. All participants arranged safe sleep environments following behavioral skills training. In Experiment 2, we used pyramidal behavioral skills training to train medical students to teach others safe sleep practices. Results indicated high procedural integrity scores following training and generalization of skills.

Decreasing nervous habits during public speaking: A component analysis of awareness training

Awareness training can produce decreases in nervous habits during public speaking. A systematic replication of Montes et al. (2020) was conducted to evaluate the independent and additive effects of awareness training components (i.e., response description, response detection) on speech disfluencies during public speaking. We extended prior research by evaluating response description alone, delivering the intervention virtually, using novel videos and speech topics during training, and measuring collateral effects on untargeted responses and speech rate. Response description was sufficient at reducing speech disfluencies for 4 of 9 participants. Response detection (video training) was necessary for 2 participants, and the subsequent addition of response detection (in-vivo training) was necessary for 3 participants. Reductions were maintained during follow-up and generalization probes for most participants. Collateral effects of awareness training components were idiosyncratic. A post-hoc analysis revealed that response description, when effective as a stand-alone intervention, may be more efficient than the full awareness training package.

Effects of preliminary class membership on subsequent stimulus equivalence class formation

The present study examined the effects of including stimuli previously trained as members of functional classes or equivalence classes on subsequent equivalence class formation, and isolated the effects of preliminary training from those of the acquired function stimuli. Fifty-six adults were assigned to 1 of 5 conditions. The control group (CONT) received no preliminary training prior to the terminal phase. Participants in the other 4 groups learned two 3-member functional classes and two 3-member equivalence classes during the preliminary phase. The terminal equivalence phase trained two 5-member classes (A → B → C → D → E) comprising abstract forms; the C stimuli in the terminal phase were (a) from the preliminary functional classes for 1 group (ACQ-F), (b) from the preliminary equivalence classes for the second experimental group (ACQ-E), (c) pictures of everyday objects for the picture control group (PIC), and (d) novel, unfamiliar stimuli for the preliminary training control group (PRE-CONT). Class formation yields were 100% in the PIC condition and 11% in the CONT condition; however, low yields in the PRE-CONT, ACQ-F, and ACQ-E conditions were unexpected, suggesting that procedural variables in preliminary training account for more of the subsequent effects on class formation than the stimulus control properties of the acquired function stimuli.

The influence of correlations between noncritical features and reinforcement on stimulus generalization

One strategy to program for generalization is to vary noncritical features in teaching exemplars, thereby avoiding noncritical features from being highly correlated with reinforcement and thus gaining faulty stimulus control. In the current translational evaluation, 2 groups of adults of typical development were taught to respond to arbitrary stimuli with experimenter-defined critical and noncritical features in a matching-to-sample task. The teaching arrangement used for 1 group programmed for low correlation between noncritical features and reinforcement; the teaching arrangement used for the other group programmed for high correlation between noncritical features and reinforcement. Participants in the former group displayed (a) faster acquisition of matching, (b) less variability in correct responding, and (c) a decreased likelihood of faulty stimulus control developing during training. The results contribute towards advancing the study of stimulus control and developing an explicit technology of generalization to better serve consumers of the application of our science.

Teaching the Mand "When?" to Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder

People diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may need specific teaching to learn mands for information. Unfortunately, little research has been published on methods for teaching the mand "When?" to this population. The purpose of the current study was to replicate and extend previous research by teaching 3 children diagnosed with ASD to mand "When?" by teaching multiple topographies of the mand, measuring mand variability, assessing social validity, interspersing a previously acquired mand for information, using multiple-exemplar training, employing a different experimental preparation, and including participants with different skill sets. All participants (a) learned to mand "When?" only during establishing operation trials (not during abolishing operation trials) within 8 teaching trials, (b) generalized manding with novel items and a novel person and setting, (c) maintained a previously learned mand for information, and (d) maintained skills at follow-up. Upon mastery, 2 participants varied mand topography. Respondents rated the intervention as having high social validity.

Effects of exposure to prompts on the acquisition of intraverbals in children with autism spectrum disorder

The current experiment is a systematic replication of previous studies that evaluated the efficiency of echoic and tact prompts on the acquisition of intraverbals (i.e., French-to-English translations) following exposure to each prompt type. We extended these studies by (a) evaluating participants' language skills on standardized assessments, (b) incorporating descriptive praise for correct responding, (c) presenting trials via voice recording, and (d) evaluating teacher preference for each prompt type as a social validity measure. All participants learned at least one set of intraverbals faster with the procedure that was most recently used during teaching. These findings suggest that results from previous prompt comparison studies might be a function of previous exposure to prompt types and that it might be possible to manipulate learning histories such that a particular prompt type becomes more efficient.

Comparing Stimulus Equivalence-Based Instruction to a Video Lecture to Increase Religious Literacy in Middle-School Children

Being familiar with world religions and their diverse practices is referred to as religious literacy. The present study compared the effects of stimulus equivalence-based instruction (EBI) and video lecture (VL) to increase religious literacy in middle-school students; 10 participants were assigned to either the EBI or the VL group. Participants in the EBI group were taught five 6-member equivalence classes using match-to-sample (MTS) software on a computer. Within each class of (1) Judaism, (2) Islam, (3) Christianity, (4) Hinduism, and (5) Buddhism, the visual stimulus members were (A) name of the religion, (B) major religious symbol, (C) sacred text, (D) notable religious figure, (E) name of religious service leader, and (F) notable celebrated holiday. The VL participants were given an opportunity to complete a fill-in written worksheet while viewing a video lecture about the 5 religions using the same stimuli as the EBI group. Participant responding in each group was compared across worksheet, oral, and MTS pretests and posttests. The results showed that 5 of 5 participants in the EBI group formed equivalence classes but only 1of 5 did so in the VL group. Class-consistent responding generalized to oral vignettes to a greater degree for the EBI participants than for the VL participants. In addition, at an approximately 2-week follow-up, EBI participants maintained class-consistent responding to a greater degree than VL participants did. Duration measures showed that even though EBI was more effective, EBI training did require more time than the VL did. Although not explicitly programmed for, social distance survey scores showed that participants improved equally in their ratings of the acceptability of people from other faiths following training, regardless of training type. Thus, EBI may be an effective method to teach schoolchildren about religious literacy.

Effects of a problem-solving strategy on the independent completion of vocational tasks by adolescents with autism spectrum disorder

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have few employment opportunities and a lower job quality than individuals of typical development. Social deficits and lack of independence may contribute to underemployment and unemployment of individuals with ASD. The ability to solve problems might ameliorate some of these barriers. We taught four adolescents with ASD a problem-solving strategy (i.e., use of a textual activity schedule) to assist with independent completion of vocational tasks in the face of three types of problems (e.g., missing or broken items) and nonproblem situations. Following introduction of the problem-solving strategy, all four participants independently completed the tasks when a problem was presented and responding generalized to untaught vocational tasks.

Establishing a Generalized Repertoire of Initiating Bids for Joint Attention in Children with Autism

The current study evaluated whether multiple-exemplar training, auditory scripts, and script-fading procedures could establish a generalized repertoire of initiating bids for joint attention in four young children with autism. Stimuli drawn from each of three experimenter-defined categories were used during teaching to program for generalization of initiations of bids for joint attention from trained stimuli to novel stimuli. A fourth category was reserved for assessment of across-category generalization of bids for joint attention. The four categories were (a) visually enticing toys, (b) unusually placed items, (c) environmental sounds, and (d) pictures. Assignment of categories for teaching and assessment of generalization was counterbalanced across the participants. Three different auditory scripts were used during intervention for each of the training stimuli to program for response generalization. All four children learned to initiate bids for joint attention. After scripts were subsequently faded and reinforcement was thinned, bids for joint attention were maintained and also generalized to novel stimuli and settings.

Evaluation of Computer-Based Training to Teach Adults Visual Analysis Skills of Baseline-Treatment Graphs

The primary method of data analysis in applied behavior analysis is visual analysis. However, few investigations to date have taught the skills necessary for accurate visual analysis. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate computer-based training on the visual analysis skills of adults with no prior experience. Visual analysis was taught with interactive computer-based training that included written instructions and opportunities for practice with textual feedback. Generalization of participant skills from simulated to handwritten and authentic data graphs was programmed for and assessed during the study. A multiple-baseline design was used across visual analysis properties (i.e., variability, level, and trend), with continuous overall intervention effect generalization probes, replicated across 4 participants to evaluate computer-based training for accurate visual analysis of A-B graphs. The results showed that all participants accurately visually analyzed A-B graphs following the computer-based training for variability, level, trend, and overall intervention effect. These visual analysis skills generalized to handwritten and authentic data graphs and maintained approximately 1 day, 1 week, 2 weeks, and 1 month following mastery of each property for all participants. Implications of the results suggest that computer-based training improved accurate visual analysis skills for adults with no prior experience.

Teaching children with autism spectrum disorder to tact olfactory stimuli

Research on tact acquisition by children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has often focused on teaching participants to tact visual stimuli. It is important to evaluate procedures for teaching tacts of nonvisual stimuli (e.g., olfactory, tactile). The purpose of the current study was to extend the literature on secondary target instruction and tact training by evaluating the effects of a discrete-trial instruction procedure involving (a) echoic prompts, a constant prompt delay, and error correction for primary targets; (b) inclusion of secondary target stimuli in the consequent portion of learning trials; and (c) multiple exemplar training on the acquisition of item tacts of olfactory stimuli, emergence of category tacts of olfactory stimuli, generalization of category tacts, and emergence of category matching, with three children diagnosed with ASD. Results showed that all participants learned the item and category tacts following teaching, participants demonstrated generalization across category tacts, and category matching emerged for all participants.

Teaching help-seeking when lost to individuals with autism spectrum disorder

Deficits in safety skills and communication deficits place individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at an increased risk of danger. We used a multiple-probe across-participants design to evaluate the effects of video modeling and programming common stimuli to teach low- and high-tech help-seeking responses to children with ASD when lost. Participants acquired answering or making a FaceTime^® call and exchanging an identification card in contrived and natural settings. Responses generalized to novel community settings and maintained during a one- and two-week follow-up. Social validity measures showed that the procedures and outcomes of the study were acceptable to indirect and direct consumers, and immediate and extended community members. Implications are that children with ASD can effectively be taught both low- and high-tech help-seeking responses when lost.

Teaching On-Task Rollerblading and Ice-Skating to a Child with Autism

The present study used a multi-component intervention package to teach on-task rollerblading and ice-skating to a boy with autism. Intervention consisted of response prompts, stimulus prompts, multiple-exemplar training, and a conditioned reinforcement system. The participant learned to remain on-task while rollerblading in a circular route marked by cones for up to 26 min. Both stimulus and response generalization of skating were demonstrated in a variety of non-training settings, including ice-skating at a rink.

Caldwell University's Department of Applied Behavior Analysis

Since 2004, faculty members at Caldwell University have developed three successful graduate programs in Applied Behavior Analysis (i.e., PhD, MA, non-degree programs), increased program faculty from two to six members, developed and operated an on-campus autism center, and begun a stand-alone Applied Behavior Analysis Department. This paper outlines a number of strategies used to advance these initiatives, including those associated with an extensive public relations campaign. We also outline challenges that have limited our programs' growth. These strategies, along with a consideration of potential challenges, might prove useful in guiding academicians who are interested in starting their own programs in behavior analysis.

Stimulus-Stimulus Pairing of Vocalizations: A Systematic Replication

The current study replicated an enhanced stimulus-stimulus pairing (SSP) procedure used by Esch et al. (Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 42: 42-225, 2009) for increasing vocalizations in children with autism. The enhanced SSP procedure consisted of pairing target vocalizations with high-preference items, interspersed target and nontarget trials, an observing response, and the presentation of the vocalizations in "motherese" speech. Results showed substantial increases in target vocalizations above baseline levels and above nontarget vocalizations for two of three participants.

An evaluation of the number of presentations of target sounds during stimulus-stimulus pairing trials

We evaluated the differential effects of 2 variations of a stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure on the vocalizations of 2 children with autism. For both participants, presenting 1 sound per pairing trial resulted in a higher rate of vocalizations than 3 sounds per pairing trial.

Using multiple-exemplar training to teach a generalized repertoire of sharing to children with autism

The current study examined the utility of multiple-exemplar training to teach children with autism to share. Stimuli from 3 of 4 categories were trained using a treatment package of video modeling, prompting, and reinforcement. Offers to share increased for all 3 children following the introduction of treatment, with evidence of skill maintenance. In addition, within-stimulus-category generalization of sharing was evident for all participants, although only 1 participant demonstrated across-category generalization of sharing. Offers to share occurred in a novel setting, with familiar and novel stimuli, and in the presence of novel adults and peers for all participants during posttreatment probes.

Establishing a generalized repertoire of helping behavior in children with autism

The present study used a multiple baseline across participants design to assess whether 4 children with autism could learn a generalized repertoire of helping adults with different tasks through the use of a multicomponent teaching package. Different helping responses were taught in the presence of multiple exemplars of discriminative stimuli drawn from experimenter-defined categories of helping behavior (e.g., locating objects, putting away items, setting up an activity). During the training condition, video models, prompting, and reinforcement were used. The results showed that all 4 children learned to emit appropriate helping responses in the presence of discriminative stimuli from the helping categories used during training. Generalization of helping responses was observed in the presence of untrained discriminative stimuli during additional probe conditions. Additional pre- and postintervention generalization trials showed that the frequency of helping responses also increased in the presence of novel stimuli, in a novel setting, and with a novel instructor.

The formation of a generalized categorization repertoire: effect of training with multiple domains, samples, and comparisons

The present experiment explored the effects of three variables on the spontaneous categorization of stimuli in perceptually distinct and novel domains. Each of six stimulus domains was created by morphing two images that were the domain endpoints. The endpoints of the domains were male and female faces, two abstract drawings, a car and a truck, two banded-elevation satellite land images, a tree and a cat, and two false-color satellite images. The stimulus variants at each end of a domain defined two potential perceptual classes. Training was conducted in a matching-to-sample format and used stimuli from one or two domains, one or three variants per class as samples, and one or three variants per class as comparisons. The spontaneous categorization of stimuli in the untrained stimulus domains showed the emergence of a generalized categorization repertoire. The proportion of spontaneously categorized stimuli in the new domains was positively related to the number of domains and samples used in training, and was inversely related to the number of comparisons used in training. Differential reaction times demonstrated the discriminability of the stimuli in the emergent classes. This study is among the first to provide an empirical basis for a behavior-analytic model of the development of generalized categorization repertoires in natural settings.

Perceptual classes established with forced-choice primary generalization tests and transfer of function

In Experiment 1, 20 college students learned two identity conditional discriminations using squares that differed in interior-fill percentage (called Fill23 and Fill77). A two-choice generalization test was then presented with number of test trials varied across groups of subjects. The test samples were 19 squares that ranged in fill value from 23% to 77%; the comparisons were squares with Fill23 and Fill77. The resulting gradients did not vary as a function of number of test trials. When the generalization test was repeated with a third comparison, "neither," the ranges of fill values that occasioned the exclusive selection of Fill23 or Fill77 were direct functions of the number of prior two-choice generalization trials. Finally, a disriminability test revealed that Fill23 and Fill77 were disciminable from the intermediate fill values. In Experiment 2, perceptual classes were established with 5 new students using 760 forced-choice generalization test trials. The student were then trained to select a different glyph in the presence of Fill23 and Fill77, followed by a three-choice generalization test in which the 19 fill stimuli served as samples and the two glyphs served as comparisons. The gradients ovelapped with those previously obtained during the three-choice generalization test that used Fill23 and Fill77 as comparisons. Finally, a discriminability test showed that many adjacent stimuli along thc fill dimension were discriminable from each other. Together, the results of both experiments suggest that ranges of fill-based stimuli functioned as members of perceptual classes, and each class also functioned as a transfer network for a new selection-based response.