Abstract 6316: Minimizing ineffective treatment using an in vitro patient derived cancer cell screening platform for local oral squamous cell carcinoma patients in Pakistan

According to GLOBOCAN’s 2020 report, in Pakistan, lip and oral cavity is the second most prevalent cancer with a low survival rate due to late detection and ineffective treatment regimens. To reduce ineffective treatment, this study aims to develop a cost-efficient in vitro drug screening platform using patient-derived primary cell lines to identify effective drugs against Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC) patients. Chemotherapeutic drugs to be screened were identified from NCCN guidelines as well as the local standard of care after oncologists from three tertiary care hospitals. These included 15 chemotherapeutic drugs along with 14 combinations. For this pilot study, tumor biopsies were collected, after relevant IRB approvals from consenting patients as part of the Oral Cancer Genomics Study project. Patient-derived primary cell lines were generated from tumor biopsies of 20 local OSCC patients recruited at Rehman Medical Institute and Hayatabad Medical Complex, Peshawar, Pakistan. Primary cell lines were derived from tumor biopsies within 30 minutes of resection and propagated till confluency using an optimized DMEM protocol. The readouts of our screen include cell viability, cell proliferation and cytotoxicity. This pilot screen presents a first of its kind dataset of the performance of drugs and drug combinations in primary cell lines derived from the tumors of local patients in Pakistan. This is not just an ideal platform to test novel and re-purposed drugs but also to develop into a service for personalized treatments, minimizing ineffective treatment and improving patient outcomes.

Citation Format: Sabaoon Zeb, Khudeja Salim, Hina Zamir, Madina Shirdel, Momal Agha, Asma Qudrat, Sajjad Ahmad, Muhammad Faisal, Muhammad Atif Munawar, Muhammad Mushtaq Khattak, Mushtaq Ahmad, Zubbair Durrani, Faisal F. Khan. Minimizing ineffective treatment using an in vitro patient derived cancer cell screening platform for local oral squamous cell carcinoma patients in Pakistan [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 6316.

Abstract 1485: Identification and in vitro validation of miRNA biomarker candidates in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma using a network biology approach

Micro-RNAs are small non-coding RNAs that are able to modulate the gene expression. Aberrant expression of micro-RNAs leads to different diseased conditions such as cancer. Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma (HNSCC) is the second most prevalent cancer in Pakistan and contributes to 9.1% of mortality annually due to late stage diagnosis and ineffective treatment. This research attempts to identify novel miRNAs candidates for their potential role as diagnostic, prognostics or therapeutic biomarkers in HNSCC patient-derived primary cells in the Pakistani population. miRNA species and their gene targets reported in HNSCC were identified using the miRbase, miRNet, and miRCancer databases, and a total of 69 miRNAs with differential expression levels in HNSCC were selected to seed a miRNA-Gene interaction network that was created using BioGrid and STRING data. Hub genes that were targeted by over-expressed miRNAs were predicted using miRTarbase. GO and KEGG analysis was carried out for the 181 interacting genes including TP53, SMAD4, PTEN, NOTCH2, and STAT3. Enrichment analysis demonstrated the increased involvement of these miRNAs in Cancer Pathways such as Hippo signaling Pathways and FoxO signaling pathways. We prioritized hub genes that were targeted by the highest number of tumor suppressor genes, and identified five miRNA species, including miR-21-5p, miR-16-5p, miR30a-5p, miR-93-5p, and miR106b-5p, as the best biomarker candidates for experimental validation. To validate the in silico findings, the top five microRNA candidates are being screened for expression in a library of local patient-derived primary cell lines from Pakistani HNSCC patients.

Citation Format: Laiba Shah, Maryam Shah, Abdus Salam, Khudeja Salim, Faisal F. Khan. Identification and in vitro validation of miRNA biomarker candidates in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma using a network biology approach [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 1485.

Advances in nano drugs for cancer chemotherapy

In spite of some medications, millions of peoples are dying every year due to cancer. Additionally, the survival patients suffer from various serious side effects due to the use of available anti-neoplastic medicines. The development of nanoparticles based drugs is seems to be effective providing low side effects and targeted action on cancer cells. The present article describes the state-of-art of nano drugs in cancer chemotherapy. The nano drugs are targeted selective and specific towards tumors only resulting into better treatment. The important molecules used for preparation nano drugs are cisplatin, carboplatin, bleomycin, 5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin, dactinomycin, 6-mercaptopurine, paclitaxel, topotecan, vinblastin and etoposide etc. The most commonly used materials for preparing nanoparticles carriers are dendrimers, polymer, liposome, micelles, inorganic, organic nanoparticles etc. A survey was carried out on the drugs available in the market and given in tabular form. However, the commonly used nano drugs till date are liposome dendrimer and some other materials based nanoparticles. Attempts have been made to explain mechanism of action of nano drugs. The future perspectives have also been highlighted in to the conclusion part.

Identification of early proteomic markers for hepatic steatosis

The identification of biomarkers for disease state, drug efficacy, and toxicity is becoming increasingly important for drug discovery and development. We have used two-dimensional differential in-gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry to identify proteomic markers associated with hepatocellular steatosis in rats after dosing with a compound (CDA) in preclinical development. Rats were dosed daily for up to 5 days with CDA for measurement of blood biochemical parameters, histological, and proteomic analysis. Alterations in plasma glucose and liver transaminases were detected from dosing day 3 onward, and livers showed trace levels of hepatocellular vacuolation from 6 h which increased in extent and severity over the 5 day time course. The number of significantly altered protein spots increased over the 5 day time course, and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis showed that the predominant functions altered by CDA treatment were cell death and cellular assembly and organization. This included alterations in secreted proteins, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondrial chaperones, antioxidant proteins, and enzymes involved in fatty acid biosynthesis. Comparative in vitro dosing studies showed similar alterations to the proteome, neutral lipid accumulation, and mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity in response to CDA treatment of cultured rat hepatocytes. The finding that several proteins showed significant changes in abundance before the onset of overt toxicity in vivo suggested that these could serve as predictive biomarkers of compounds with a propensity to induce liver steatosis. These markers underwent further direct analysis in the in vitro hepatocyte toxicity model to determine their utility in the development of high throughput assays for drug-induced steatosis.

Pure isolated unilateral internuclear ophthalmoplegia from ischemic origin: report of a case and literature review

PURPOSE

To report a case of pure isolated unilateral internuclear ophthalmoplegia from ischemic stroke, and to review its literature.

METHODS

A 55-year old man, with a history of long-standing diabetes mellitus, developed acute-onset left internuclear ophthalmoplegia. MRI revealed a small paramedian dorsal pontine infarct ventral and lateral to the aquaductus cerebri. Intracranial MR angiography was normal. A systematic search was performed of the literature from January 1980 to December 2004 by using MEDLINE and EMBASE. Case reports with or series including patients with negative MRI findings were excluded.

RESULTS

Nine cases of pure isolated MRI-proven unilateral INO resulting from ischemic stroke including this one, have been reported. In over 75% recovery was reported.

CONCLUSION

Isolated unilateral internuclear ophthalmoplegia can be the sole manifestation of ischemic stroke and generally carries a good prognosis.

Development of a system for integrative and stable transformation of the zygomycete Rhizopus oryzae by Agrobacterium-mediated DNA transfer

Two transformation systems, based on the use of CaCl(2)/PEG and Agrobacterium tumefaciens, respectively, were developed for the zygomycete Rhizopus oryzae. Irrespective of the selection marker used, a pyr4 marker derived from R. niveus or a dominant amdS(+) marker from Aspergillus nidulans, and irrespective of the configuration of the transforming DNA (linear or circular), the transformants obtained with the CaCl(2)/PEG transformation method were found to carry multiple copies of tandemly linked vector molecules, which failed to integrate into the genomic DNA. Furthermore, these transformants displayed low mitotic stability. In contrast, transformants obtained by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation were mitotically stable, even under non-selective conditions. Detailed analysis of these transformants revealed that the transforming DNA had integrated into the genome of R. oryzae at a single locus in independently obtained transformants. In addition, truncation of the transforming DNA was observed, resulting in the integration of the R. niveus pyr4 marker gene, but not the second gene located on the transferred DNA. Modification of the transforming DNA, resulting in partial resistance to restriction enzyme digestion, was observed in transformants obtained with the CaCl(2)/PEG transformation method, suggesting that a specific genome defence mechanism may exist in R. oryzae. It is likely that the unique mechanism used by A. tumefaciens to deliver its transferred DNA to its hosts facilitates bypass of the host defence mechanisms, thus allowing the DNA to integrate into the chromosomal genome.

Leptin attenuates follicular apoptosis and accelerates the onset of puberty in immature rats

Human and rat granulosa cells express receptors to leptin which synergies with glucocorticoid hormones in stimulation of ovarian steroidogenesis. To examine whether leptin affects follicular development and maturation, we injected recombinant ovine leptin (300 ng-10 microg/animal) daily to immature 21 day-old female rats. Non-treated rats reached puberty at 44.5+/-1.6 (n=9) days. In contrast, in leptin treated animals, puberty was reached at 34.5+/-1.6 (n=9) days. Ovarian sections revealed hypertrophy of granulosa cells in leptin treated animals. Moreover, the number of ovulations was 2-fold higher in the treated animals compared to controls (3-4 ovulations versus 7-8 on the first three estrous cycles, P<0.001). Leptin dramatically reduced incidence of follicular apoptosis measured by TUNEL, and was already evident after 7 days of leptin injection (12% of apoptosis in leptin treated group compared to 52% in controls, P<0.001). Maximal protection against apoptosis was achieved at 1-3 microg leptin/animal. The levels of FSH, LH, progesterone and the steroidogenic factors ADX and STAR were elevated earlier in development in the leptin treated animals compared to control animals which is in line with the achievement of early puberty in the leptin treated animals compared to non treated ones. To reveal whether modulation of death and survival genes is involved in leptin attenuation of follicular apoptosis, we examined the expression of the survival gene Bcl-2 and the death gene Bax in Western blots of ovarian homogenates. There was a pronounced elevation in Bcl-2 expression during 7-14 days of leptin injections up to 16.3-fold (P<0.001) compared to Bcl-2 expression in controls. Bax expression was elevated only 3.4 fold (P<0.001), leading to an increase in the Bcl-2/Bax ratio of 4.7 fold (P<0.001). Expression of the tumor suppressor gene p 53 and the oncogene Mdm2 did not change significantly. Our data suggests that leptin may be involved in accelerating follicular maturation by attenuating follicular atresia and increasing the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax.

Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of macrolide-resistant group A Streptococcus strains in the province of Quebec, Canada

Resistance to macrolides among group A streptococci is an increasing problem worldwide. We examined 496 strains phenotypically and genotypically for resistance to erythromycin and clindamycin. Strains were isolated in five different geographical areas representing about 45% of the total Quebec population. The overall resistance rate was 4.6% but varied from 0% in rural areas to 9.4% in Montreal. Of the 23 strains showing resistance to erythromycin, 15 (65%) had an identical pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pattern, were of serotype M28T28 and harboured the erm(TR) gene, suggesting the spread of a single clone. Of the remaining eight strains, two strains had the erm(B) gene, five had the mef gene and one with a different serotype also had the erm(TR) gene.

Identification and characterization of a truncated variant of the 5-hydroxytryptamine(2A) receptor produced by alternative splicing

We have identified an alternatively spliced 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor (5-HT(2A)-R) transcript by PCR of human brain cDNA using degenerate oligonucleotide primers to transmembrane (TM) domains 3 and 7 of the 5-HT(2)-R subfamily. The variant contains a 118-bp insertion at the exon II/III boundary of the 5-HT(2A)-R, which produces a frame shift in the coding sequence and a premature stop codon. PCR analysis showed that the truncated receptor (5-HT(2A-tr)) and native 5-HT(2A)-R were co-expressed in most brain tissues, with the highest levels being found in hippocampus, corpus collosum, amygdala and caudate nucleus. Western blot analysis of HEK-293 cells transfected transiently with a 5-HT(2A-tr) construct showed that a 30-kDa protein was expressed on cell membranes. Co-transfection studies showed no effect of the 5-HT(2A-tr) variant on 3H-ketanserin binding to the native 5-HT(2A)-R or on functional coupling of the 5-HT(2A)-R to 5-HT-stimulated Ca(2+) mobilization. The functional significance of the 5-HT(2A-tr) variant and other truncated receptors remains to be established.

Edg2 receptor functionality: gialpha1 coexpression and fusion protein studies

Recombinant receptor cell lines are widely used in G-protein-coupled receptor selectivity studies. To unequivocally interpret the results of such studies, it is essential that the host cell line does not endogenously express the receptor of interest and in addition is unresponsive to the receptor's natural ligand. Here we describe an approach to overcome such difficulties associated with orphan receptors or, as in the present case, receptors whose endogenous ligand ubiquitously affects mammalian cells. The functional heterologous assay system described is for the hEdg2 receptor, which uses lysophosphatidic acid as its endogenous ligand. Once activated, this receptor mediates its effects via multiple secondary messenger pathways, including a Gi-coupled pathway. We have transiently expressed a pertussis toxin-insensitive hEdg2 receptor-ratGialpha1 fusion protein into human embryonic kidney cells and have monitored the ability of compounds to stimulate [(35)S]GTPgammaS binding in membranes prepared from these cells after pretreatment with toxin. Because the assay conditions used favor Gi-mediated responses and because endogenous Gialpha subunits are rendered inactive, the response measured is, by definition, fusion protein-mediated. Consequently, we have developed an assay that monitors definitively Edg2 receptor-mediated responses in a mammalian cell line. A limited structure activity relationship study suggests that the lysophospholipid carbon chain has a role in receptor activation and in addition indicates that certain modifications to the phosphate group are tolerated.

EDG receptors as a therapeutic target in the nervous system

EDG receptors are a family of closely related G-protein-coupled receptors, so-called since the first family member to be cloned is encoded by an endothelial differentiation gene. Of the six family members identified, five use lysophospholipids as their endogenous ligands. The sixth receptor, EDG-6, remains an orphan. These receptors activate multiple secondary-messenger pathways involving coupling to Gi, Gq/11, and G12/13 trimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins and are thought to play an important role in cell growth, development and maintenance, and cytoskeletal-dependent changes. EDG receptors are expressed in most mammalian cells and tissues, each subtype having a distinct distribution pattern, raising the possibility of tissue-specific biological roles that could be explored in drug-discovery programs. In this study the distribution of EDG-receptor mRNA within the nervous system has been investigated. As seen in peripheral tissues, these receptors appear to be discretely localized within specific brain regions and cell types. For example, EDG-1, -3, -4 receptors are confined to neuronal cells, EDG-2 receptors to white matter tracts, while EDG-5 receptors appear to be expressed in various cell types, including neuronal cells, white matter tracts, and ependymal cells. EDG-6-receptor mRNA was not detected in the nervous system. Speculation as to the role of these receptors in physiological/pathophysiological processes, particularly those involving cell development, proliferation, maintenance, migration, differentiation, plasticity, and apoptosis can be made from such distribution studies. EDG receptors located in brain neuronal cells might, for example, influence apoptosis and be involved in cell rescue following ischemic damage or during the early stages of progressive neurodegenerative diseases. Those restricted to oligodendrocytes might play a crucial role in myelination and offer a potential target in the treatment of demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. In order to explore the role of these receptors, it is necessary to identify selective compounds. To this end we have developed an agonist-induced [35S]GTP gamma S binding assay using an HEK cell line expressing a pertussis-toxin-insensitive human-EDG-2-receptor-rat-Gi alpha 1-fusion protein. Such as assay system overcomes the problems associated with the almost ubiquitous responsiveness of mammalian cells to lysophospholipid. This assay lends itself to high throughput application, opening up the possibility of identifying compounds to further probe the therapeutic potential of EDG receptor manipulation.

Characterization of the in vivo acceptors of the mycoloyl residues transferred by the corynebacterial PS1 and the related mycobacterial antigens 85

Mycolic acids, long-chain (C70-C90) alpha-alkyl, beta-hydroxy fatty acids, are characteristic cell envelope components of mycobacteria; similar but shorter-chain substances occur in corynebacteria and related taxa. These compounds apparently play an important role in the physiology of these bacteria. The deduced N-terminal region of PS1, one of the two major secreted proteins of Corynebacterium glutamicum encoded by the csp1 gene, is similar to the antigens 85 complex of Mycobacterium tuberculosis which has been shown to be associated in vitro with a mycoloyltransferase activity onto trehalose. Overexpression of PS1 in the wild-type strain of C. glutamicum suggested the implication of the protein in the transfer of corynomycolates, evidenced by an increase esterification of the cell wall arabinogalactan with corynomycolic acid residues and an accumulation of trehalose dicorynomycolates. Overexpression of truncated forms of PS1 demonstrated that the crucial region for transfer activity of the protein involves all the region of homology with antigens 85. To establish the putative mycoloyltransferase activity of PS1, a csp1-inactivated mutant of C. glutamicum was biochemically characterized. Inactivation of the gene resulted in: (i) a 50% decrease in the cell wall corynomycolate content; (ii) the alteration of the permeability of the C. glutamicum cell envelope; (iii) the decrease of the trehalose dicorynomycolate content; (iv) the accumulation of trehalose monocorynomycolate; and (v) the appearance of a glycolipid identified as 6-corynomycoloylglucose. Complementation of the mutant by the csp1 gene fully restored the wild-type phenotype. Finally, a mycoloyltransferase assay established that PS1 possesses a trehalose mycoloyltransferase activity. To define the in vivo function of antigens 85, the csp1-inactivated mutant was complemented with the fbpA, fbpB or fbpC genes. Complementation with the different fbp genes restored the normal cell wall corynomycolate content and permeability, but did not affect either the fate of trehalose corynomycolates or the occurrence of glucose corynomycolate. Thus, PS1 is one of the enzymes that transfer corynomycoloyl residues onto both the cell wall arabinogalactan and trehalose monocorynomycolate, whereas in the whole bacterium the mycobacterial antigens 85A, 85B and 85C can transfer mycolates only onto the cell wall acceptor in C. glutamicum.

Phospholipid-binding protein domains

Research into cellular mechanisms for signal transduction is currently one of the most exciting and rapidly advancing fields of biological study. It has been known for some time that numerous intracellular signals are transmitted by specific protein-protein interactions, as exemplified by those involving the Src homology domains. However, after some controversy, it has recently been widely accepted that specific protein-phospholipid interactions also play key roles in many signal transduction pathways. In this review, landmark discoveries and recent advances describing protein domains known to associate with phospholipids are discussed. Particular emphasis is placed on the interactions of proteins with phospholipids acting as second messengers in signalling pathways. For this purpose, the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain is highlighted, since studies of this domain provided some of the earliest, detailed data about protein-phospholipid interactions occurring downstream of growth factor-mediated receptor stimulation. Moreover, studies of PH domains have given insight into the mechanisms of certain diseases, revealed a number of intriguing functional variations on a common structural theme and recently culminated in providing the missing links in erstwhile mysteries of phosphoinositide-dependent signal transduction pathways. Finally, a short discussion is devoted to the developing field of protein-phospholipid interactions that influence cytoskeletal organisation.

Heterologous expression of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis gene encoding antigen 85A in Corynebacterium glutamicum

By using appropriate Corynebacterium glutamicum-Escherichia coli shuttle plasmids, the gene encoding the fibronectin-binding protein 85A (85A) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis was expressed in C. glutamicum, also an actinomycete and nonsporulating gram-positive rod bacterium, which is widely used in industrial amino acid production. The 85A gene was weakly expressed in C. glutamicum under the control of the ptac promoter from E. coli, but it was produced efficiently under the control of the promoter of the cspB gene encoding PS2, one of the two major secreted proteins from C. glutamicum. The 85A protein was produced in various forms, with or without its own signal sequence and with or without the signal sequence and the NH2-terminal (18-amino-acid) mature sequence of PS2. Western blot analysis with monoclonal antibodies raised against the M. tuberculosis antigen 85 complex showed that recombinant 85A protein was present in the corynebacterial cell wall extract and also released in extracellular culture medium. NH2-terminal microsequencing of recombinant 85A secreted by C. glutamicum showed that signal peptide was effectively cleaved off at the predicted site. The recombinant 85A protein was biologically active in vitro, inducing significant secretion of Th1 T-cell cytokines, particularly interleukin-2 and gamma interferon, in spleen cell cultures from mice vaccinated with live Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Heterologous expression of mycobacterial antigens in C. glutamicum now offers a potent tool for further immunological characterization and large scale preparation of these recombinant proteins.

Distinct specificity in the recognition of phosphoinositides by the pleckstrin homology domains of dynamin and Bruton's tyrosine kinase

Pleckstrin homology (PH) domains may act as membrane localization modules through specific interactions with phosphoinositide phospholipids. These interactions could represent responses to second messengers, with scope for regulation by soluble inositol polyphosphates. A biosensor-based assay was used here to probe interactions between PH domains and unilamellar liposomes containing different phospholipids and to demonstrate specificity for distinct phosphoinositides. The dynamin PH domain specifically interacted with liposomes containing phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] and, more weakly, with liposomes containing phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate [PI(4)P]. This correlates with phosphoinositide activation of the dynamin GTPase. The functional GTPase of a dynamin mutant lacking the PH domain, however, cannot be activated by PI(4,5)P2. The phosphoinositide-PH domain interaction can be abolished selectively by point mutations in the putative binding pocket predicted by molecular modelling and NMR spectroscopy. In contrast, the Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk)PH domain specifically bound liposomes containing phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate [PI(3,4,5)P3]: an interaction requiring Arg28, a residue found to be mutated in some X-linked agammaglobulinaemia patients. A rational explanation for these different specificities is proposed through modelling of candidate binding pockets and is supported by NMR spectroscopy.

Crystal structure of the pleckstrin homology domain from dynamin

The pleckstrin homology (PH) domain is a conserved module present in many signal transducing and cytoskeletal proteins. Here we report the 2.8 A crystal structure of the PH domain from dynamin. This domain consists of seven beta-strands forming two roughly orthogonal antiparallel beta-sheets terminating with an amphipathic alpha-helix. The structure also reveals a non-covalent dimeric association of the PH domain and a hydrophobic pocket surrounded by a charged rim. The dynamin PH domain structure is discussed in relation to its potential role in mediating interactions between proteins.

Three-dimensional solution structure of the pleckstrin homology domain from dynamin

BACKGROUND

The pleckstrin homology (PH) domain is a region of approximately 100 amino acids, defined by sequence similarity, that has been found in about 60 proteins, many of which are involved in signal transduction downstream of cell surface receptors; the function of PH domains is unknown. The only clue to the function of PH domains is the circumstantial evidence that they may link beta gamma subunits of G proteins to second messenger systems. Knowledge of the three-dimensional structures of PH domains should help to elucidate the roles they play in the proteins that contain them.

RESULTS

Using homonuclear and heteronuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we have determined the solution structure of the PH domain of the GTPase dynamin, one of a number of proteins that have PH domains and interact with GTP. The fold of the dynamin PH domain is composed of two antiparallel beta-sheets, which pack face-to-face at an angle of approximately 60 degrees. The first beta-sheet comprises four strands (residues 13-58) from the amino-terminal half of the protein sequence; the second beta-sheet contains three strands (residues 63-99). A single alpha-helix (residues 102-116) flanks one edge of the interface between the two sheets, parallel in orientation to the second sheet, in an alpha/beta roll motif similar to that of the B oligomer of verotoxin-1 from Escherichia coli.

CONCLUSIONS

The structure of the dynamin PH domain is very similar to the recently reported structures of the pleckstrin and spectrin PH domains. This shows that, despite the low level of sequence similarity between different PH domains, they do have a characteristic polypeptide fold. On the basis of our structure, the suggestion that PH domains engage in coiled-coil interactions with G protein beta gamma subunits seems unlikely and should be re-evaluated.