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Zegre M, Poljańska E, Caetano LA, Gonçalves L, Bettencourt A. Research progress on biodegradable polymeric platforms for targeting antibiotics to the bone. Int J Pharm 2023; 648:123584. [PMID: 37940080 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
The treatment of bone infections still involves systemic or local antibiotic therapy in high doses for prolonged periods. Current research focuses on the application of different drug delivery systems to the bone, aiming at a targeted local administration that will decrease the number of drugs used and their toxicity, compared to the systemic route. The gold standard in clinical practice is currently poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) cement. The main drawback of PMMA, however, is that it is non-biodegradable, requiring a second follow-up surgery to remove the implant. Biodegradable delivery systems, on the other hand, are easily resorbable within the organism, and less invasive alternative with better patient compliance. Among biodegradable materials, natural and synthetic polymers are being studied as local drug delivery systems due to their excellent biocompatibility, sustained effect, and antibiotic release with high penetrability to infected bone and soft tissue. In this review, we focus on biodegradable polymeric platforms, such as micro- and nanoparticles, scaffolds, and hydrogels, as well as multi-delivery systems for targeting antibiotics to the bone. Additionally, we discuss the reported drug release profiles that provide important information about the systems' functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Zegre
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; H&TRC - Centro de Investigação em Saúde e Tecnologia, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde de Lisboa, IPL - Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Av. D. João II, Lote 4.69.01, 1990-096 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - E Poljańska
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - L A Caetano
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; H&TRC - Centro de Investigação em Saúde e Tecnologia, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde de Lisboa, IPL - Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Av. D. João II, Lote 4.69.01, 1990-096 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - L Gonçalves
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - A Bettencourt
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal.
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Zegre M, Barros J, Ribeiro IAC, Santos C, Caetano LA, Gonçalves L, Monteiro Resource FJ, Ferraz MP, Bettencourt A. Poly(DL-lactic acid) scaffolds as a bone targeting platform for the co-delivery of antimicrobial agents against S. aureus-C. albicans mixed biofilms. Int J Pharm 2022; 622:121832. [PMID: 35595042 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
New strategies for the treatment of polymicrobial bone infections are required. In this study, the co-delivery of two antimicrobials by poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA) scaffolds was investigated in a polymicrobial biofilm model. PDLLA scaffolds were prepared by solvent casting/particulate leaching methodology, incorporating minocycline and voriconazole as clinically relevant antimicrobial agents. The scaffolds presented a sponge-like appearance, suitable to support cell proliferation and drug release. Single- and dual-species biofilm models of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans were developed and characterized. S. aureus presented a higher ability to form single-species biofilms, compared to C. albicans. Minocycline and voriconazole-loaded PDLLA scaffolds showed activity against S. aureus and C. albicans single- and dual-biofilms. Ultimately, the cytocompatibility/functional activity of PDLLA scaffolds observed in human MG-63 osteosarcoma cells unveil their potential as a next-generation co-delivery system for antimicrobial therapy in bone infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Zegre
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal; H&TRC - Centro de Investigação em Saúde e Tecnologia, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde de Lisboa, IPL - Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Av. D. João II, Lote 4.69.01, 1990-096, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - J Barros
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde - Associação, Universidade do Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal
| | - I A C Ribeiro
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - C Santos
- CQE - Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais 1049-001,Lisboa, Portugal; EST Setúbal, CDP2T, Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, Campus IPS, 2910 Setúbal,Portugal
| | - L A Caetano
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal; H&TRC - Centro de Investigação em Saúde e Tecnologia, ESTeSL - Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde de Lisboa, IPL - Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Av. D. João II, Lote 4.69.01, 1990-096, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - L Gonçalves
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - F J Monteiro Resource
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde - Associação, Universidade do Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal; FEUP/DEMM - Departamento de Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - M P Ferraz
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde - Associação, Universidade do Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, R. Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135, Porto, Portugal; FEUP/DEMM - Departamento de Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Bettencourt
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal.
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Costa-Riquetto AD, Santana LS, Caetano LA, Lerário AM, Correia-Deur JEM, Bertola DR, Kim CA, Nery M, Jorge AAL, Teles MG. Targeted massively parallel sequencing for congenital generalized lipodystrophy. Arch Endocrinol Metab 2021; 64:559-566. [PMID: 34033296 PMCID: PMC10118969 DOI: 10.20945/2359-3997000000278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Objective Our aim is to establish genetic diagnosis of congenital generalized lipodystrophy (CGL) using targeted massively parallel sequencing (MPS), also known as next-generation sequencing (NGS). Methods Nine unrelated individuals with a clinical diagnosis of CGL were recruited. We used a customized panel to capture genes related to genetic lipodystrophies. DNA libraries were generated, sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq, and bioinformatics analysis was performed. Results An accurate genetic diagnosis was stated for all nine patients. Four had pathogenic variants in AGPAT2 and three in BSCL2. Three large homozygous deletions in AGPAT2 were identified by copy-number variant analysis. Conclusion Although we have found allelic variants in only 2 genes related to CGL, the panel was able to identify different variants including deletions that would have been missed by Sanger sequencing. We believe that MPS is a valuable tool for the genetic diagnosis of multi-genes related diseases, including CGL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline D Costa-Riquetto
- Grupo de Diabetes Monogênico, Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM/25) e Unidade de Diabetes, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Lucas S Santana
- Grupo de Diabetes Monogênico, Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM/25) e Unidade de Diabetes, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Lílian A Caetano
- Grupo de Diabetes Monogênico, Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM/25) e Unidade de Diabetes, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Antônio M Lerário
- Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética, Laboratório de Endocrinologia Celular e Molecular/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM/25), Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil; Departamento de Medicina Interna, Divisão de Metabolismo, Endocrinologia e Diabetes, Universidade de Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Joya E M Correia-Deur
- Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética, Laboratório de Endocrinologia Celular e Molecular/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM25), Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Débora R Bertola
- Unidade de Genética, Instituto da Criança, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Chong A Kim
- Unidade de Genética, Instituto da Criança, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Márcia Nery
- Unidade de Diabetes, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Alexander A L Jorge
- Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética, Laboratório de Endocrinologia Celular e Molecular/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM25), Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Milena G Teles
- Grupo de Diabetes Monogênico, Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética/Laboratório de Investigação Médica (LIM/25) e Unidade de Diabetes, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil,
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Viegas C, Caetano LA, Cox J, Korkalainen M, Haines SR, Dannemiller KC, Viegas S, Reponen T. The effects of waste sorting in environmental microbiome, THP-1 cell viability and inflammatory responses. Environ Res 2020; 185:109450. [PMID: 32244107 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.109450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Workers in the waste sorting industry are exposed to diverse bioaerosols. Characterization of these bioaerosols is necessary to more accurately assess the health risks of exposure. The use of high-throughput DNA sequencing for improved analysis of microbial composition of bioaerosols, in combination with their in vitro study in relevant cell cultures, represents an important opportunity to find answers on the biological effects of bioaerosols. This study aimed to characterize by high-throughput sequencing the biodiversity present in complex aerosol mixtures retained in forklift air conditioning filters of a waste-sorting industry and its effects on cytotoxicity and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in vitro using human macrophages derived from monocytic THP-1 cells. Seventeen filters from the filtration system from forklifts operating in one waste sorting facility and one control filter (similar filter without prior use) were analyzed using high-throughput sequencing and toxicological tests in vitro. A trend of positive correlation was seen between the number of bacterial and fungal OTUs (r = 0.47, p = 0.06). Seven filters (39%) exhibited low or moderate cytotoxicity (p < 0.05). The highest cytotoxic responses had a reduction in cell viability between 17 and 22%. Filter samples evoked proinflammatory responses, especially the production of TNFα. No significant correlation was found between fungal richness and inflammatory responses in vitro. The data obtained stress the need of thorough exposure assessment in waste-sorting industry and to take immunomodulatory properties into consideration for bioaerosols hazard characterization. The broad spectrum of microbial contamination detected in this study demonstrates that adequate monitoring of bioaerosol exposure is necessary to evaluate and minimize risks. The combined techniques can support the implementation of effective environmental monitoring programs of public and occupational health importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Viegas
- H&TRC- Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL- Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal; Comprehensive Health Research Center (CHRC), Portugal.
| | - L A Caetano
- H&TRC- Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL- Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, 649-003, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - J Cox
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, P.O. Box 670056, Cincinnati, OH, 45242, USA
| | - M Korkalainen
- Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Environmental Health, P.O. Box 95, FIN-70701, Kuopio, Finland
| | - S R Haines
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - K C Dannemiller
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geodetic Engineering, College of Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; Division of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - S Viegas
- H&TRC- Health & Technology Research Center, ESTeSL- Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, Portugal; NOVA National School of Public Health, Public Health Research Centre, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal; Comprehensive Health Research Center (CHRC), Portugal
| | - T Reponen
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, P.O. Box 670056, Cincinnati, OH, 45242, USA
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Santana LS, Caetano LA, Costa-Riquetto AD, Quedas EPS, Nery M, Collett-Solberg P, Boguszewski MCS, Vendramini MF, Crisostomo LG, Floh FO, Zarabia ZI, Kohara SK, Guastapaglia L, Passone CGB, Sewaybricker LE, Jorge AAL, Teles MG. Clinical application of ACMG-AMP guidelines in HNF1A and GCK variants in a cohort of MODY families. Clin Genet 2017; 92:388-396. [PMID: 28170077 DOI: 10.1111/cge.12988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is a form of monogenic diabetes with autosomal dominant inheritance. GCK -MODY and HNF1A -MODY are the prevalent subtypes. Currently, there is growing concern regarding the correct interpretation of molecular genetic findings. The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) updated guidelines to interpret and classify molecular variants. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of MODY ( GCK / HNF1A ) in a large cohort of Brazilian families, to report variants related to phenotype, and to classify them according to ACMG guidelines. One hundred and nine probands were investigated, 45% with clinical suspicion of GCK -MODY and 55% with suspicion of HNF1A -MODY. Twenty-five different variants were identified in GCK gene (30 probands-61% of positivity), and 7 variants in HNF1A (10 probands-17% of positivity). Fourteen of them were novel (12- GCK /2- HNF1A ). ACMG guidelines were able to classify a large portion of variants as pathogenic (36%- GCK /86%- HNF1A ) and likely pathogenic (44%- GCK /14%- HNF1A ), with 16% (5/32) as uncertain significance. This allows us to determine the pathogenicity classification more efficiently, and also reinforces the suspected associations with the phenotype among novel variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Santana
- Monogenic Diabetes Group, Genetic Endocrinology Unit and Laboratory of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology/LIM25, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L A Caetano
- Monogenic Diabetes Group, Genetic Endocrinology Unit and Laboratory of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology/LIM25, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Diabetes Unit, Clinics Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - A D Costa-Riquetto
- Monogenic Diabetes Group, Genetic Endocrinology Unit and Laboratory of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology/LIM25, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Diabetes Unit, Clinics Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - E P S Quedas
- Monogenic Diabetes Group, Genetic Endocrinology Unit and Laboratory of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology/LIM25, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - M Nery
- Diabetes Unit, Clinics Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - P Collett-Solberg
- Department of Endocrinology, University of Rio de Janeiro State (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - M C S Boguszewski
- Departamento de Pediatria, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - M F Vendramini
- Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital do Servidor Público Estadual de São Paulo (HSPE-SP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L G Crisostomo
- Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital Israelita Albert Eisntein, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Faculdade de Medicina, Centro Universitário São Camilo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - F O Floh
- Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital Israelita Albert Eisntein, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Z I Zarabia
- Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital Infantil Dr. Jeser Amarante Faria, Joinville, SC, Brazil
| | - S K Kohara
- Serviço de Endocrinologia, Universidade da Região de Joinville (UNIVILLE), Joinville, SC, Brazil
| | - L Guastapaglia
- Serviço de Endocrinologia, Hospital do Servidor Público Municipal de São Paulo (HSPM-SP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - C G B Passone
- Instituto da Criança, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L E Sewaybricker
- Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - A A L Jorge
- Monogenic Diabetes Group, Genetic Endocrinology Unit and Laboratory of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology/LIM25, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - M G Teles
- Monogenic Diabetes Group, Genetic Endocrinology Unit and Laboratory of Molecular & Cellular Endocrinology/LIM25, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Diabetes Unit, Clinics Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Caetano LA, Jorge AAL, Malaquias AC, Trarbach EB, Queiroz MS, Nery M, Teles MG. Incidental mild hyperglycemia in children: two MODY 2 families identified in Brazilian subjects. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 56:519-24. [PMID: 23295292 DOI: 10.1590/s0004-27302012000800010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) is characterized by an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance, early onset of hyperglycemia, and defects of insulin secretion. MODY subtypes described present genetic, metabolic, and clinical differences. MODY 2 is characterized by mild asymptomatic fasting hyperglycemia, and rarely requires pharmacological treatment. Hence, precise diagnosis of MODY is important for determining management and prognosis. We report two heterozygous GCK mutations identified during the investigation of short stature. Case 1: a prepubertal 14-year-old boy was evaluated for constitutional delay of growth and puberty. During follow-up, he showed abnormal fasting glucose (113 mg/dL), increased level of HbA1c (6.6%), and negative β-cell antibodies. His father and two siblings also had slightly elevated blood glucose levels. The mother had normal glycemia. A GCK heterozygous missense mutation, p.Arg191Trp, was identified in the proband. Eighteen family members were screened for this mutation, and 11 had the mutation in heterozygous state. Case 2: a 4-year-old boy investigated for short stature revealed no other laboratorial alterations than elevated glycemia (118 mg/dL); β-cell antibodies were negative. His father, a paternal aunt, and the paternal grandmother also had slightly elevated glycemia, whereas his mother had normal glycemia. A GCK heterozygous missense mutation, p.Glu221Lys, was identified in the index patient and in four family members. All affected patients had mild elevated glycemia. Individuals with normal glycemia did not harbor mutations. GCK mutation screening should be considered in patients with chronic mild early-onset hyperglycemia, family history of impaired glycemia, and negative β-cell antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lílian A Caetano
- Unidade de Endocrinologia Genética, Laboratório de Endocrinologia Molecular e Celular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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