"It doesn't matter if you are in charge of the trees, you always miss the trees for the forest": Power and the illusion of explanatory depth

Power can increase overconfidence and illusory thinking. We investigated whether power is also related to the illusion of explanatory depth (IOED), people's tendency to think they understand the world in more detail, coherence, and depth than they actually do. Abstract thinking was reported as a reason for the IOED, and according to the social distance theory of power, power increases abstract thinking. We linked these literatures and tested construal style as a mediator. Further, predispositions can moderate effects of power and we considered narcissism as a candidate because narcissism leads to overconfidence and may thus increase the IOED especially in combination with high power. In three preregistered studies (total N = 607), we manipulated power or measured feelings of power. We found evidence for the IOED (regarding explanatory knowledge about devices). Power led to general overconfidence but had only a small impact on the IOED. Power and narcissism had a small interactive effect on the IOED. Meta-analytical techniques suggest that previous findings on the construal-style-IOED link show only weak evidential value. Implications refer to research on management, power, and overconfidence.

The predictive value of self-compassion for psychological adjustment in left ventricular assist device patients: an observational study

Aims

Implantation of a left ventricular assist device (LVAD) is an established treatment option for patients with advanced heart failure. However, apart from its challenging medical management, it comes with serious psychological implications. Empirical evidence suggests that self‐compassion, a self‐regulation strategy for countering negative self‐directed emotions, might be a promising approach in facilitating psychological adjustment also in LVAD patients. The aims of the present study were to investigate self‐compassion as a protective factor for anxiety and depressive symptoms, to test whether taking a decentred perspective mediates these effects, and to explore whether self‐compassion predicts the clinically rated functional health status.

Method and results

A sample of N = 45 patients (36 male) with a mean age of 60.5 years (SD = 10.8) from the outpatient department for terminal heart failure at the University Medical Center in Kiel, Germany, participated in the study. Patients completed self‐report measures for psychological adjustment (HADS), self‐compassion (SCS), and decentring (EQ). Functional health status was determined by the NYHA classification. The more patients were self‐compassionate, the less they reported anxiety (r = −0.28) and depressive symptoms (r = −0.34). Decentring mediated both effects. Moreover, self‐compassion predicted the functional health status, even when controlling for anxiety (odds ratio [OR] = 0.09) and depressive symptoms (OR = 0.11).

Conclusions

This study provides the first evidence for a significant interrelation between self‐compassion and common adverse psychological conditions in LVAD patients. Longitudinal data and the evaluation of interventions to strengthen self‐compassion are needed to further validate the beneficial effects of self‐compassion in LVAD patients in the future.

Better Battles by a Self-Compassionate Partner?

Abstract. Self-compassion entails being kind towards oneself when encountering uncontrollable life events, inadequacies, or failure. When in conflict with a romantic partner, we expected self-compassion to be associated positively with functional (positive problem solving) and negatively with dysfunctional styles (conflict engagement, withdrawal, compliance). Adult individuals ( n = 163) involved in a serious romantic relationship for at least 2 years responded to a questionnaire that assessed self-compassion, personality factors, conflict resolution styles, and relationship satisfaction. High self-compassionate partners reported more functional and less dysfunctional styles when statistically controlling for demographics, neuroticism, and agreeableness. Conflict resolution styles fully mediated the significant path between self-compassion and relationship satisfaction.

Financial reimbursement - irrelevant for GPs' readiness to implement brief intervention to reduce alcohol consumption? A cross-sectional vignette study

Background

General Practitioners’ (GPs) readiness to implement screening and brief intervention (SBI) to treat patients with excessive alcohol consumption is low. Several studies identified crucial barriers such as insufficient financial reimbursement. In contrast to the barriers-account, we assume that low implementation readiness of GPs may be less attributed to external barriers but rather more so to inherent characteristics of SBI. To test our assumption, we conducted a vignette study assessing the GPs’ readiness to implement SBI in comparison to a pharmacological intervention also designed for the treatment of excessive drinkers in relation to standard or above-standard financial reimbursement. According to our hypothesis GPs should be less ready to implement SBI regardless of financial reimbursement.

Methods

A convenience sample of GPs was recruited to answer the questionnaire. To assess the GPs’ implementation readiness a 4-item 6-point Likert scale was developed and pretested.

Results

One hundred forty GPs completed the questionnaire. GPs were more ready to implement the pharmacological intervention than SBI, F(1,132) = 27.58, p > .001 (main effect).

We found no effect for financial reimbursement, F(1,132) = 3.60, ns, and no interaction effect, F(1,132) = 2.20, ns.

Conclusions

Further research should investigate more thoroughly the crucial characteristics of SBI to initiate a modification process finally leading to more effective primary care dependency prevention.

How the Influence of Unethical Leaders on Followers Is Affected by Their Implicit Followership Theories

Our research examines the role of followers in unethical leadership. Drawing on a social–cognitive approach to leadership and recent research in the field of behavioral ethics, we focus on how leader behavior and follower information processing interact to produce unethical outcomes. In two experimental studies simulating a personnel selection context, we examine to what extent individual implicit assumptions regarding the follower role (i.e., implicit followership theories, IFTs) relate to employees’ tendency to comply with leader unethical suggestions. In Study 1, controlling for possible alternative explanations such as personal need for structure, romance of leadership, and moral disengagement, we found that the IFT Good Citizen increased and the IFT Insubordination decreased followers’ tendencies to contribute to unethical leadership. In Study 2, we varied the leader’s unethical suggestions to further investigate the conditions under which these effects occur and included authoritarianism as an additional control variable. Overall, our findings suggest that IFTs make a unique contribution to our understanding of the role of followers in unethical leadership, and that this contribution depends on the way leaders frame their unethical request. Interaction effects suggest that follower characteristics need to be considered as they are embedded in specific situational settings rather than as isolated traits.

The Effects of Intragroup Interaction and Cohesion on Intergroup Bias

The current study investigated the effects of intragroup interaction and cohesion on intergroup bias in a minimal group setting. As expected, interacting groups displayed a stronger intergroup bias than did individual group members acting in isolation. Moreover, there was a tendency for cohesive groups to show more intergroup bias than did groups formed on an ad hoc basis. Additional analyses showed that while groups and individuals did not differ in their treatment of the ingroup, groups discriminated against outgroup members more strongly than did individually acting group members. The findings are discussed with respect to their implications for understanding the differences in intergroup bias between groups, whose members interact, and individually acting group members.

Estimating the glomerular filtration rate using serum cystatin C levels in patients with spinal cord injuries

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the relationship between (51)chromium-ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetate ((51)Cr-EDTA) clearance, serum cystatin C (CysC), serum creatinine, creatinine clearance and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR(MDRD), MDRD stands for modification of diet in renal disease) based on the serum creatinine in patients with complete or incomplete spinal cord injury (SCI) and to develop and evaluate a GFR-estimating equation using serum CysC.

SETTINGS

Spinal Cord Injury Unit, Viborg Regional Hospital, Viborg, Denmark.

METHODS

Ninety-eight men and 47 women with SCI were included in the study. Serum CysC levels were measured by an automated particle-enhanced nephelometric immunoassay, serum and urine creatinine levels were measured by an enzymatic method traceable to the IDMS creatinine reference method, and (51)Cr-EDTA clearance was measured by a multiple plasma sample method.

RESULTS

The area under the curves (AUCs) in the non-parametric receiver operating characteristics (ROC) plots for serum CysC were compared with serum creatinine and to eGFR(MDRD) and revealed a significant difference (P-value < 0.05) for all SCI patients. There was no significant difference between the AUC for serum CysC compared with the AUC for creatinine clearance. GFR (ml min(-1) per 1.73 m(2)) can be calculated from serum CysC values (mg l(-1)) using the equation eGFR(CysC) = 212·exp(0.914·CysC). The model accurately predicted the GFR of 88% of patients within ± 30% of the measured GFR, and it was able to predict the GFR of 50% of patients within ± 10% of the measured GFR.

CONCLUSION

In patients with SCI, GFR can be estimated independent of age, sex and muscle mass by a newly developed equation based on a single serum CysC value.

Employment discrimination: authority figures' demographic preferences and followers' affective organizational commitment

The authors used theories of organizational commitment and obedience to authority to explain employment discrimination. In Study 1, employees participated in an experimental simulation of their work. An organizational authority's demographic preferences led to employment discrimination. As expected, affective organizational commitment moderated this effect, such that it was stronger for more committed employees. In Study 2, another sample of employees completed a survey that included an employment discrimination scenario. A model of linkages from affective organizational commitment to submissiveness to organizational authorities to employment discrimination fit the data well, after controlling for prejudicial attitudes and authoritarianism. Submissiveness to organizational authorities mediated the relationship between affective organizational commitment and employment discrimination. The authors discuss the importance of studying employment discrimination as an organizational and not just an intergroup phenomenon.

Die Effektivität von schriftlichen und graphischen Warnhinweisen auf Zigarettenschachteln

Zusammenfassung: In der vorliegenden Studie wurde die Effektivität von furchterregenden Warnhinweisen bei jugendlichen Rauchern und Raucherinnen analysiert. 336 Raucher/-innen (Durchschnittsalter: 15 Jahre) wurden schriftliche oder graphische Warnhinweise auf Zigarettenpackungen präsentiert (Experimentalbedingungen; n = 96, n = 119), oder sie erhielten keine Warnhinweise (Kontrollbedingung; n = 94). Anschließend wurden die Modellfaktoren des revidierten Modells der Schutzmotivation ( Arthur & Quester, 2004 ) erhoben. Die Ergebnisse stützen die Hypothese, dass die Faktoren “Schweregrad der Schädigung” und “Wahrscheinlichkeit der Schädigung” die Verhaltenswahrscheinlichkeit, weniger oder leichtere Zigaretten zu rauchen, vermittelt über den Mediator “Furcht” beeinflussen. Die Verhaltenswahrscheinlichkeit wurde dagegen nicht von den drei experimentellen Bedingungen beeinflusst. Auch konnten die Faktoren “Handlungswirksamkeitserwartungen” und “Selbstwirksamkeitserwartungen” nicht als Moderatoren des Zusammenhangs zwischen Furcht und Verhaltenswahrscheinlichkeit bestätigt werden.

Der Einfluss von Models in der Werbung auf das Körperselbstbild der Betrachter/innen

Zusammenfassung. In der vorliegenden Studie wurde untersucht, ob die Betrachtung von Werbeinseraten mit Models das Körperselbstbild bei Frauen und Männern verändern kann. Den 124 weiblichen und männlichen Teilnehmern (Altersmittelwert: 30 Jahre; Range 18 bis 60 Jahre) der Studie wurden entweder Werbeinserate ohne Models (Kontrollgruppe), Werbeinserate mit weiblichen und männlichen Models (Experimentalgruppe 1) oder Werbeinserate mit Models ausschließlich des eigenen Geschlechts (Experimentalgruppe 2) präsentiert. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung zeigen unter anderem, dass weibliche Teilnehmer beider Experimentalgruppen eine größere Diskrepanz zwischen ihrem realen und idealen Körperschema wahrnehmen und auch stärker davon ausgehen, dass andere Frauen ein dünneres Ideal anstreben als Frauen der Kontrollgruppe. Bei männlichen Teilnehmern konnten dagegen keine bedeutsamen Unterschiede in der Körperwahrnehmung zwischen Männern der Experimentalgruppen und der Kontrollgruppe festgestellt werden. Diese Ergebnisse werden in Bezug auf zum Teil konträre Ergebnisse einer aktuellen amerikanischen Studie und hinsichtlich ihrer gesellschaftlichen Relevanz diskutiert.

Neuropathology of cognitively normal elderly

Despite general agreement about the boundaries of Alzheimer disease (AD), establishing a maximum limit for Alzheimer-type pathology in cognitively intact individuals might aid in defining more precisely the point at which Alzheimer pathology becomes clinically relevant. In this study, we examined the neuropathological changes in the brains of 39 longitudinally followed. cognitively normal elderly individuals (24 women, 15 men; age range 74-95, median 85 years). Neuropathological changes of the Alzheimer type were quantified by determining neurofibrillary tangle (NFT) staging by the method of Braak and Braak and by quantification of the abundance of diffuse, cored, and neuritic plaque burden using the scheme developed by the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer Disease (CERAD). Vascular, Lewy body, and argyrophilic grain pathology were also assessed. We found 34 subjects (87%) with a Braak stage <IV; 32 subjects (82%) with less than moderate numbers of cored plaques and 37 subjects (95%) with less than moderate numbers of tau-positive neuritic plaques. Many subjects had moderate or frequent diffuse plaques (n = 19, 49%). By the National Institute on Aging-Reagan Institute (NIA-RI) criteria, none of our cases met criteria for high "likelihood" of AD. Four met NIA-RI criteria for intermediate "likelihood." Seven cases met CERAD criteria for possible AD. Nineteen met Khachaturian criteria for AD. Only 1 subject had neocortical Lewy bodies. Small, old infarcts were common, but no subjects had more than 2 of these and none had a single large infarction. Thus, the majority of individuals who are cognitively normal near the time of their death have minimal amounts of tau-positive neuritic pathology (Braak stage <IV and neuritic plaques <6 per x100 field in the most affected neocortical region). The few subjects with more severe AD pathology can be expected based on incidence rates of AD in the very elderly.

Managing the Stress of Bringing the Economy in the Eastern German States to the Level of the Western German States

A select group of managers in the private and public sector working in the new and old German federal states were administered the German version of the Pressure Management Indicator (PMI; Williams, Kirkcaldy, & Cooper, 1999 ). Twenty-four scale scores were assessed encompassing diverse aspects of occupational stress, individual differences (type A, locus of control, and coping), and outcome variables (work satisfaction, physical and psychological health). Several differences were observed between those managers reared and educated in the former East Germany and those from the former West Germany. East-German managers, for example, were characterized by an external locus of control with regard to their jobs and revealed higher type A scores compared to their West-German counterparts. Furthermore, although there were no differences in the evaluation of working climate nor in subjectively perceived occupational stress, specific outcome variables such as self-reported physical and psychological health did differ between West- and East-German managers. The implications of these findings are discussed.

[Real groups in the minimal group paradigm; does the group context work as corrective or catalysing agent for social discrimination?]

Studies applying the minimal group paradigm to analyze social discrimination processes have been analyzing for the most part the behavior of individuals. The present experiment extends the minimal group paradigm to the group level. The aim of the present study was to compare the decisions made by real groups (N = 3 persons) with those made by single persons. The analysis of the total points given to the in- or the outgroup as well as the strategy MIP + MDI on F revealed that groups are significantly more biased towards the ingroup than individuals. On the other hand, individuals use the strategy F on MIP + MDI significantly more than groups and thus show a greater amount of fairness. These conclusions are qualified by a new method of identifying dominant strategies which shows that the dominant strategy used by individuals and groups is fairness. A theoretical explanation of the results is offered based on social identity theory, the groupthink model and self-awareness theory.

Reale Gruppen im Paradigma der minimalen Gruppen:

Zusammenfassung. Studien, die das Paradigma der minimalen Gruppen zur Analyse sozial-diskriminierender Prozesse einsetzten, haben größtenteils das Verhalten von Individuen analysiert. Das vorliegende Experiment erweitert das Paradigma der minimalen Gruppen auf die Gruppenebene. Ziel des vorliegenden Experimentes war es, die Entscheidungen von realen Gruppen (N = 3 Personen) mit den Entscheidungen von Individuen zu vergleichen. Die Analyse der insgesamt an Mitglieder der Eigen- und Fremdgruppe verteilten Punkte als auch die Strategie MIP + MDI vs. F zeigen, daß Gruppen die Eigengruppe signifikant stärker bevorzugen als Individuen. Individuen dagegen nutzen die Strategie F vs. MIP + MDI signifikant deutlicher und zeigen damit ein größeres Ausmaß an Fairneß. Diese Schlußfolgerungen werden qualifiziert durch eine neue Methode zur Identifikation von dominanten Strategien, die zeigt, daß die dominante Strategie sowohl bei Individuen als auch bei Gruppen die Fairneßstrategie ist. Eine theoretische Erklärung der gefundenen Effekte wird angeboten rekurrierend auf die Theorie der sozialen Identität, das Modell des Gruppendenkens und die Theorie der Selbstaufmerksamkeit.

Effects of self-schema elaboration on affective and cognitive reactions to self-relevant information

The basic assumption of the integrative self-schema model (ISSM; L.-E. Petersen, 1994; L.-E. Petersen, D. Stahlberg, & D. Dauenheimer, 1996; D. Stahlberg, L.-E. Petersen, & D. Dauenheimer, 1994, 1999) is that self-schema elaboration (schematic vs. aschematic) affects reactions to self-relevant information. This assumption is based on the idea that schematic dimensions occupy a more central position in the cognitive system than aschematic dimensions. In the first study, this basic prediction could be clearly confirmed: The results showed that schematic dimensions possessed stronger cognitive associations with other self-relevant cognitions as well as a higher resistance to change than aschematic dimensions did. In the second study, the main assumptions of the ISSM concerning the affective and cognitive reactions to self-relevant feedback were tested: The ISSM proposes that, on schematic dimensions, reactions to self-relevant feedback will most likely follow principles of self-consistency theory, whereas on aschematic dimensions positive feedback should elicit the most positive reactions that self-enhancement theory would predict. The experimental results clearly confirmed the hypotheses derived from the ISSM for affective reactions. Cognitive reactions, however, were in line with self-consistency principles and were not modified by the elaboration of the self-schema dimension involved.

Isolation of gamma-glutamyltransferase from human liver, and comparison with the enzyme from human kidney

We isolated gamma-glutamyltransferase [(gamma-glutamyl)-peptide:amino acid gamma-glutamyltransferase, EC 2.3.2.2] from human liver and compared some of its properties with the same enzyme prepared from human kidney. The enzymes from these two sources are very similar with respect to initial velocity kinetic constants, pH optima of the transpeptidation and autotransfer reactions, heat stability, competitive inhibition by glutathione of the colorimetric assay in which gamma-glutamyl-4-nitroanilide is substrate, stability of catalytic activity to trypsinization, and relative rates of transfer of the gamma-glutamyl moiety from gamma-glutamyl-4-nitroanilide and L-[glycine-2-3/]glutathione to some amino acids and small peptides. The kidney enzyme is inhibited more by the gamma-glutamyl acceptor substrate, glycylglycine, as reflected in a sevenfold lower value for the inhibition constant KiA. Major differences were observed in the lectin-binding properties of liver gamma-glutamyltransferase compared to the kidney enzyme. Lectin-binding property differences are retained for the trypsinized form of the liver and kidney enzymes, although the degree of precipitation was less for certain lectins as compared to the untreated enzyme. Lectin-binding properties were reversed by carbohydrates specific for each lectin. We adapted the histochemical staining technique of Rutenberg et al. [J. Histochem. Cytochem. 17, 517 (1969)] to the detection of gamma-glutamyltransferase activity in acrylamide gels; diffusion artifacts are minimized and the color produced is stable for several days. Untreated and trypsinized forms of the liver enzyme both migrated faster in acrylamide gels (as single bands) than did the corresponding forms of the kidney enzyme.

Isolation of gamma-glutamyltransferase from human liver, and comparison with the enzyme from human kidney

We isolated gamma-glutamyltransferase [(gamma-glutamyl)-peptide:amino acid gamma-glutamyltransferase, EC 2.3.2.2] from human liver and compared some of its properties with the same enzyme prepared from human kidney. The enzymes from these two sources are very similar with respect to initial velocity kinetic constants, pH optima of the transpeptidation and autotransfer reactions, heat stability, competitive inhibition by glutathione of the colorimetric assay in which gamma-glutamyl-4-nitroanilide is substrate, stability of catalytic activity to trypsinization, and relative rates of transfer of the gamma-glutamyl moiety from gamma-glutamyl-4-nitroanilide and L-[glycine-2-3/]glutathione to some amino acids and small peptides. The kidney enzyme is inhibited more by the gamma-glutamyl acceptor substrate, glycylglycine, as reflected in a sevenfold lower value for the inhibition constant KiA. Major differences were observed in the lectin-binding properties of liver gamma-glutamyltransferase compared to the kidney enzyme. Lectin-binding property differences are retained for the trypsinized form of the liver and kidney enzymes, although the degree of precipitation was less for certain lectins as compared to the untreated enzyme. Lectin-binding properties were reversed by carbohydrates specific for each lectin. We adapted the histochemical staining technique of Rutenberg et al. [J. Histochem. Cytochem. 17, 517 (1969)] to the detection of gamma-glutamyltransferase activity in acrylamide gels; diffusion artifacts are minimized and the color produced is stable for several days. Untreated and trypsinized forms of the liver enzyme both migrated faster in acrylamide gels (as single bands) than did the corresponding forms of the kidney enzyme.