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Hesser AR, Matano LM, Vickery CR, Wood BM, Santiago AG, Morris HG, Do T, Losick R, Walker S. The length of lipoteichoic acid polymers controls Staphylococcus aureus cell size and envelope integrity. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:JB.00149-20. [PMID: 32482719 PMCID: PMC8404710 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00149-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is protected by a cell envelope that is crucial for viability. In addition to peptidoglycan, lipoteichoic acid (LTA) is an especially important component of the S. aureus cell envelope. LTA is an anionic polymer anchored to a glycolipid in the outer leaflet of the cell membrane. It was known that deleting the gene for UgtP, the enzyme that makes this glycolipid anchor, causes cell growth and division defects. In Bacillus subtilis, growth abnormalities from the loss of ugtP have been attributed to both the absence of the encoded protein and to the loss of its products. Here, we show that growth defects in S. aureus ugtP deletion mutants are due to the long, abnormal LTA polymer that is produced when the glycolipid anchor is missing from the outer leaflet of the membrane. Dysregulated cell growth leads to defective cell division, and these phenotypes are corrected by mutations in the LTA polymerase, ltaS, that reduce polymer length. We also show that S. aureus mutants with long LTA are sensitized to cell wall hydrolases, beta-lactam antibiotics, and compounds that target other cell envelope pathways. We conclude that control of LTA polymer length is important for S. aureus physiology and promotes survival under stressful conditions, including antibiotic stress.IMPORTANCE Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a common cause of community- and hospital-acquired infections and is responsible for a large fraction of deaths caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. S. aureus is surrounded by a complex cell envelope that protects it from antimicrobial compounds and other stresses. Here we show that controlling the length of an essential cell envelope polymer, lipoteichoic acid, is critical for controlling S. aureus cell size and cell envelope integrity. We also show that genes involved in LTA length regulation are required for resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics in MRSA. The proteins encoded by these genes may be targets for combination therapy with an appropriate beta-lactam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Hesser
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - B McKay Wood
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ace George Santiago
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Heidi G Morris
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Truc Do
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Richard Losick
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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2
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Ito T, Gallegos R, Matano LM, Butler NL, Hantman N, Kaili M, Coyne MJ, Comstock LE, Malamy MH, Barquera B. Genetic and Biochemical Analysis of Anaerobic Respiration in Bacteroides fragilis and Its Importance In Vivo. mBio 2020; 11:e03238-19. [PMID: 32019804 PMCID: PMC7002350 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03238-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In bacteria, the respiratory pathways that drive molecular transport and ATP synthesis include a variety of enzyme complexes that utilize different electron donors and acceptors. This property allows them to vary the efficiency of energy conservation and to generate different types of electrochemical gradients (H+ or Na+). We know little about the respiratory pathways in Bacteroides species, which are abundant in the human gut, and whether they have a simple or a branched pathway. Here, we combined genetics, enzyme activity measurements, and mammalian gut colonization assays to better understand the first committed step in respiration, the transfer of electrons from NADH to quinone. We found that a model gut Bacteroides species, Bacteroides fragilis, has all three types of putative NADH dehydrogenases that typically transfer electrons from the highly reducing molecule NADH to quinone. Analyses of NADH oxidation and quinone reduction in wild-type and deletion mutants showed that two of these enzymes, Na+-pumping NADH:quinone oxidoreductase (NQR) and NADH dehydrogenase II (NDH2), have NADH dehydrogenase activity, whereas H+-pumping NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (NUO) does not. Under anaerobic conditions, NQR contributes more than 65% of the NADH:quinone oxidoreductase activity. When grown in rich medium, none of the single deletion mutants had a significant growth defect; however, the double Δnqr Δndh2 mutant, which lacked almost all NADH:quinone oxidoreductase activity, had a significantly increased doubling time. Despite unaltered in vitro growth, the single nqr deletion mutant was unable to competitively colonize the gnotobiotic mouse gut, confirming the importance of NQR to respiration in B. fragilis and the overall importance of respiration to this abundant gut symbiont.IMPORTANCEBacteroides species are abundant in the human intestine and provide numerous beneficial properties to their hosts. The ability of Bacteroides species to convert host and dietary glycans and polysaccharides to energy is paramount to their success in the human gut. We know a great deal about the molecules that these bacteria extract from the human gut but much less about how they convert those molecules into energy. Here, we show that B. fragilis has a complex respiratory pathway with two different enzymes that transfer electrons from NADH to quinone and a third enzyme complex that may use an electron donor other than NADH. Although fermentation has generally been believed to be the main mechanism of energy generation in Bacteroides, we found that a mutant lacking one of the NADH:quinone oxidoreductases was unable to compete with the wild type in the mammalian gut, revealing the importance of respiration to these abundant gut symbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Ito
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Rene Gallegos
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nicole L Butler
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Noam Hantman
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
| | - Matthew Kaili
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael J Coyne
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Laurie E Comstock
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael H Malamy
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Blanca Barquera
- Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, USA
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3
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Coyne MJ, Béchon N, Matano LM, McEneany VL, Chatzidaki-Livanis M, Comstock LE. A family of anti-Bacteroidales peptide toxins wide-spread in the human gut microbiota. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3460. [PMID: 31371723 PMCID: PMC6671954 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11494-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria often produce antimicrobial toxins to compete in microbial communities. Here we identify a family of broad-spectrum peptide toxins, named bacteroidetocins, produced by Bacteroidetes species. We study this toxin family using phenotypic, mutational, bioinformatic, and human metagenomic analyses. Bacteroidetocins are related to class IIa bacteriocins of Gram-positive bacteria and kill members of the Bacteroidetes phylum, including Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, and Prevotella gut species, as well as pathogenic Prevotella species. The bacteroidetocin biosynthesis genes are found in horizontally acquired mobile elements, which likely allow dissemination within the gut microbiota and may explain their wide distribution in human populations. Bacteroidetocins may have potential applications in microbiome engineering and as therapeutics for polymicrobial diseases such as bacterial vaginosis and periodontal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Coyne
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Nathalie Béchon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Institut Pasteur, Genetics of Biofilms Unit, 75015 Paris, cedex 15, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, France
- Ecole Doctorale Bio Sorbonne Paris Cité (BioSPC), Paris Diderot University, 75013, Cellule Pasteur, Paris, cedex, France
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Valentina Laclare McEneany
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Maria Chatzidaki-Livanis
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Ohio, Athens, OH, 45701, USA
| | - Laurie E Comstock
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Wood BM, Santa Maria JP, Matano LM, Vickery CR, Walker S. A partial reconstitution implicates DltD in catalyzing lipoteichoic acid d-alanylation. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:17985-17996. [PMID: 30237166 PMCID: PMC6240853 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Modifications to the Gram-positive bacterial cell wall play important roles in antibiotic resistance and pathogenesis, but the pathway for the d-alanylation of teichoic acids (DLT pathway), a ubiquitous modification, is poorly understood. The d-alanylation machinery includes two membrane proteins of unclear function, DltB and DltD, which are somehow involved in transfer of d-alanine from a carrier protein inside the cell to teichoic acids on the cell surface. Here, we probed the role of DltD in the human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus using both cell-based and biochemical assays. We first exploited a known synthetic lethal interaction to establish the essentiality of each gene in the DLT pathway for d-alanylation of lipoteichoic acid (LTA) and confirmed this by directly detecting radiolabeled d-Ala-LTA both in cells and in vesicles prepared from mutant strains of S. aureus We developed a partial reconstitution of the pathway by using cell-derived vesicles containing DltB, but no other components of the d-alanylation pathway, and showed that d-alanylation of previously formed lipoteichoic acid in the DltB vesicles requires the presence of purified and reconstituted DltA, DltC, and DltD, but not of the LTA synthase LtaS. Finally, based on the activity of DltD mutants in cells and in our reconstituted system, we determined that Ser-70 and His-361 are essential for d-alanylation activity, and we propose that DltD uses a catalytic dyad to transfer d-alanine to LTA. In summary, we have developed a suite of assays for investigating the bacterial DLT pathway and uncovered a role for DltD in LTA d-alanylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- B McKay Wood
- From the Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - John P Santa Maria
- From the Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Leigh M Matano
- From the Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Christopher R Vickery
- From the Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Suzanne Walker
- From the Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115.
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5
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Matano LM, Morris HG, Hesser AR, Martin SES, Lee W, Owens TW, Laney E, Nakaminami H, Hooper D, Meredith TC, Walker S. Antibiotic That Inhibits the ATPase Activity of an ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter by Binding to a Remote Extracellular Site. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:10597-10600. [PMID: 28727445 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b04726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Antibiotic-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus pose a major threat to human health and there is an ongoing need for new antibiotics to treat resistant infections. In a high throughput screen (HTS) of 230 000 small molecules designed to identify bioactive wall teichoic acid (WTA) inhibitors, we identified one hit, which was expanded through chemical synthesis into a small panel of potent compounds. We showed that these compounds target TarG, the transmembrane component of the two-component ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter TarGH, which exports WTA precursors to the cell surface for attachment to peptidoglycan. We purified, for the first time, a WTA transporter and have reconstituted ATPase activity in proteoliposomes. We showed that this new compound series inhibits TarH-catalyzed ATP hydrolysis even though the binding site maps to TarG near the opposite side of the membrane. These are the first ABC transporter inhibitors shown to block ATPase activity by binding to the transmembrane domain. The compounds have potential as therapeutic agents to treat S. aureus infections, and purification of the transmembrane transporter will enable further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Heidi G Morris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Anthony R Hesser
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Sara E S Martin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Wonsik Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Tristan W Owens
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University , 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Emaline Laney
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Hidemasa Nakaminami
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital , 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - David Hooper
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Massachusetts General Hospital , 55 Fruit Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Timothy C Meredith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University , 206 South Frear Laboratory, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard University , 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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6
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Schaefer K, Matano LM, Qiao Y, Kahne D, Walker S. In vitro reconstitution demonstrates the cell wall ligase activity of LCP proteins. Nat Chem Biol 2017; 13:396-401. [PMID: 28166208 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.2302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Sacculus is a peptidoglycan (PG) matrix that protects bacteria from osmotic lysis. In Gram-positive organisms, the sacculus is densely functionalized with glycopolymers important for survival, but the way in which assembly occurs is not known. In Staphylococcus aureus, three LCP (LytR-CpsA-Psr) family members have been implicated in attaching the major glycopolymer wall teichoic acid (WTA) to PG, but ligase activity has not been demonstrated for these or any other LCP proteins. Using WTA and PG substrates produced chemoenzymatically, we show that all three proteins can transfer WTA precursors to nascent PGs, establishing that LCP proteins are PG-glycopolymer ligases. Although all S. aureus LCP proteins have the capacity to attach WTA to PG, we show that their cellular functions are not redundant. Strains lacking lcpA have phenotypes similar to those of WTA-null strains, indicating that this is the most important WTA ligase. This work provides a foundation for studying how LCP enzymes participate in cell wall assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlin Schaefer
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yuan Qiao
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Daniel Kahne
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Matano LM, Morris HG, Wood BM, Meredith TC, Walker S. Accelerating the discovery of antibacterial compounds using pathway-directed whole cell screening. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:6307-6314. [PMID: 27594549 PMCID: PMC5180449 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Since the introduction of penicillin into the clinic in 1942, antibiotics have saved the lives of millions of people around the world. While penicillin and other traditional broad spectrum antibiotics were effective as monotherapies, the inexorable spread of antibiotic resistance has made alternative therapeutic approaches necessary. Compound combinations are increasingly seen as attractive options. Such combinations may include: lethal compounds; synthetically lethal compounds; or administering a lethal compound with a nonlethal compound that targets a virulence factor or a resistance factor. Regardless of the therapeutic strategy, high throughput screening is a key approach to discover potential leads. Unfortunately, the discovery of biologically active compounds that inhibit a desired pathway can be a very slow process, and an inordinate amount of time is often spent following up on compounds that do not have the desired biological activity. Here we describe a pathway-directed high throughput screening paradigm that combines the advantages of target-based and whole cell screens while minimizing the disadvantages. By exploiting this paradigm, it is possible to rapidly identify biologically active compounds that inhibit a pathway of interest. We describe some previous successful applications of this paradigm and report the discovery of a new class of d-alanylation inhibitors that may be useful as components of compound combinations to treat methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Heidi G Morris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - B McKay Wood
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Timothy C Meredith
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 206 South Frear Laboratory, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, 4 Blackfan Circle, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Santiago M, Matano LM, Moussa SH, Gilmore MS, Walker S, Meredith TC. A new platform for ultra-high density Staphylococcus aureus transposon libraries. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:252. [PMID: 25888466 PMCID: PMC4389836 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1361-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Staphylococcus aureus readily develops resistance to antibiotics and achieving effective therapies to overcome resistance requires in-depth understanding of S. aureus biology. High throughput, parallel-sequencing methods for analyzing transposon mutant libraries have the potential to revolutionize studies of S. aureus, but the genetic tools to take advantage of the power of next generation sequencing have not been fully developed. RESULTS Here we report a phage-based transposition system to make ultra-high density transposon libraries for genome-wide analysis of mutant fitness in any Φ11-transducible S. aureus strain. The high efficiency of the delivery system has made it possible to multiplex transposon cassettes containing different regulatory elements in order to make libraries in which genes are over- or under-expressed as well as deleted. By incorporating transposon-specific barcodes into the cassettes, we can evaluate how null mutations and changes in gene expression levels affect fitness in a single sequencing data set. Demonstrating the power of the system, we have prepared a library containing more than 690,000 unique insertions. Because one unique feature of the phage-based approach is that temperature-sensitive mutants are retained, we have carried out a genome-wide study of S. aureus genes involved in withstanding temperature stress. We find that many genes previously identified as essential are temperature sensitive and also identify a number of genes that, when disrupted, confer a growth advantage at elevated temperatures. CONCLUSIONS The platform described here reliably provides mutant collections of unparalleled genotypic diversity and will enable a wide range of functional genomic studies in S. aureus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Santiago
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Leigh M Matano
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Samir H Moussa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Michael S Gilmore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, MA, 02114, USA.
| | - Suzanne Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Timothy C Meredith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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Palmer MR, Hagerman JM, Matano LM, DeWitt KM, Zhang Y. Thermodynamic analysis and fluorescence imaging of homochiral amino acid–amino acid interactions at the air/water interface. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 408:235-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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