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Köndgen S, Oh DY, Thürmer A, Sedaghatjoo S, Patrono LV, Calvignac-Spencer S, Biere B, Wolff T, Dürrwald R, Fuchs S, Reiche J. A robust, scalable, and cost-efficient approach to whole genome sequencing of RSV directly from clinical samples. J Clin Microbiol 2024; 62:e0111123. [PMID: 38407068 PMCID: PMC10935636 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01111-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of acute lower respiratory tract infections causing significant morbidity and mortality among children and the elderly; two RSV vaccines and a monoclonal antibody have recently been approved. Thus, there is an increasing need for a detailed and continuous genomic surveillance of RSV circulating in resource-rich and resource-limited settings worldwide. However, robust, cost-effective methods for whole genome sequencing of RSV from clinical samples that are amenable to high-throughput are still scarce. We developed Next-RSV-SEQ, an experimental and computational pipeline to generate whole genome sequences of historic and current RSV genotypes by in-solution hybridization capture-based next generation sequencing. We optimized this workflow by automating library preparation and pooling libraries prior to enrichment in order to reduce hands-on time and cost, thereby augmenting scalability. Next-RSV-SEQ yielded near-complete to complete genome sequences for 98% of specimens with Cp values ≤31, at median on-target reads >93%, and mean coverage depths between ~1,000 and >5,000, depending on viral load. Whole genomes were successfully recovered from samples with viral loads as low as 230 copies per microliter RNA. We demonstrate that the method can be expanded to other respiratory viruses like parainfluenza virus and human metapneumovirus. Next-RSV-SEQ produces high-quality RSV genomes directly from culture isolates and, more importantly, clinical specimens of all genotypes in circulation. It is cost-efficient, scalable, and can be extended to other respiratory viruses, thereby opening new perspectives for a future effective and broad genomic surveillance of respiratory viruses. IMPORTANCE Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of severe acute respiratory tract infections in children and the elderly, and its prevention has become an increasing priority. Recently, vaccines and a long-acting monoclonal antibody to protect effectively against severe disease have been approved for the first time. Hence, there is an urgent need for genomic surveillance of RSV at the global scale to monitor virus evolution, especially with an eye toward immune evasion. However, robust, cost-effective methods for RSV whole genome sequencing that are suitable for high-throughput of clinical samples are currently scarce. Therefore, we have developed Next-RSV-SEQ, an experimental and computational pipeline that produces reliably high-quality RSV genomes directly from clinical specimens and isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Köndgen
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, Consultant Laboratory for RSV, PIV and HMPV, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Djin-Ye Oh
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, Consultant Laboratory for RSV, PIV and HMPV, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andrea Thürmer
- Genome Competence Center, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Livia V. Patrono
- Epidemiology of highly pathogenic microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Barbara Biere
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, Consultant Laboratory for RSV, PIV and HMPV, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thorsten Wolff
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, Consultant Laboratory for RSV, PIV and HMPV, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ralf Dürrwald
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, Consultant Laboratory for RSV, PIV and HMPV, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stephan Fuchs
- Genome Competence Center, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Janine Reiche
- Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses, Consultant Laboratory for RSV, PIV and HMPV, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Patrono LV, Röthemeier C, Kouadio L, Couacy-Hymann E, Wittig RM, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH. Non-invasive genomics of respiratory pathogens infecting wild great apes using hybridisation capture. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2022; 16:858-861. [PMID: 35388591 PMCID: PMC9343332 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Human respiratory pathogens have repeatedly caused lethal outbreaks in wild great apes across Africa, leading to population declines. Nonetheless, our knowledge of potential genomic changes associated with pathogen introduction and spread at the human‐great ape interface remains sparse. Here, we made use of target enrichment coupled with next generation sequencing to non‐invasively investigate five outbreaks of human‐introduced respiratory disease in wild chimpanzees living in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. By retrieving 34 complete viral genomes and three distinct constellations of pneumococcal virulence factors, we provide genomic insights into these spillover events and describe a framework for non‐invasive genomic surveillance in wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia V Patrono
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Ecology and Emergence of Zoonotic Diseases, Helmholtz Institute for One Health, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Caroline Röthemeier
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Leonce Kouadio
- Laboratoire National d'Appui au Développement Agricole/Laboratoire Central de Pathologie Animale, Bingerville, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Emmanuel Couacy-Hymann
- Laboratoire National d'Appui au Développement Agricole/Laboratoire Central de Pathologie Animale, Bingerville, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | | | - Fabian H Leendertz
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Ecology and Emergence of Zoonotic Diseases, Helmholtz Institute for One Health, Greifswald, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
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Bersacola E, Parathian H, Frazão-Moreira A, Jaló M, Sanhá A, Regalla A, Saíd AR, Quecuta Q, Camará ST, Quade SMFF, Jaquite SM, Lopes AG, Patrono LV, Ramon M, Bessa J, Godley BJ, Bonneaud C, Leendertz FH, Hockings KJ. Developing an Evidence-Based Coexistence Strategy to Promote Human and Wildlife Health in a Biodiverse Agroforest Landscape. Front Conserv Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fcosc.2021.735367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Agroforest mosaics represent one of the most extensive human-impacted terrestrial systems worldwide and play an increasingly critical role in wildlife conservation. In such dynamic shared landscapes, coexistence can be compromised if people view wildlife as a source of infectious disease. A cross-disciplinary One Health knowledge base can help to identify evolving proponents and threats to sustainable coexistence and establish long-term project goals. Building on an existing knowledge base of human–wildlife interactions at Cantanhez National Park (NP), Guinea-Bissau, we developed a causal pathway Theory-of-Change approach in response to a newly identified disease threat of leprosy in the Critically Endangered western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). The goals of our project are to improve knowledge and surveillance of leprosy in humans and wildlife and increase capacity to manage human–wildlife interactions. We describe the core project activities that aim to (1) quantify space use by chimpanzees across Cantanhez NP and determine the distribution of leprosy in chimpanzees; (2) understand the health system and local perceptions of disease; and (3) identify fine-scale risk sites through participatory mapping of resources shared by humans and chimpanzees across target villages. We discuss the development of a biodiversity and health monitoring programme, an evidence-based One Health campaign, and a One Health environmental management plan that incorporates the sharing of space and resources, and the disease implications of human–non-human great ape interactions. We demonstrate the importance of multi-stakeholder engagement, and the development of strategy that fully considers interactions between people, wildlife, and the environment.
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Calvignac-Spencer S, Düx A, Gogarten JF, Patrono LV. Molecular archeology of human viruses. Adv Virus Res 2021; 111:31-61. [PMID: 34663498 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2021.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of human-virus associations is usually reconstructed from contemporary patterns of genomic diversity. An intriguing, though still rarely implemented, alternative is to search for the genetic material of viruses in archeological and medical archive specimens to document evolution as it happened. In this chapter, we present lessons from ancient DNA research and incorporate insights from virology to explore the potential range of applications and likely limitations of archeovirological approaches. We also highlight the numerous questions archeovirology will hopefully allow us to tackle in the near future, and the main expected roadblocks to these avenues of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Calvignac-Spencer
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany; Viral Evolution, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Ariane Düx
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany; Viral Evolution, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan F Gogarten
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany; Viral Evolution, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Livia V Patrono
- Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Hockings KJ, Mubemba B, Avanzi C, Pleh K, Düx A, Bersacola E, Bessa J, Ramon M, Metzger S, Patrono LV, Jaffe JE, Benjak A, Bonneaud C, Busso P, Couacy-Hymann E, Gado M, Gagneux S, Johnson RC, Kodio M, Lynton-Jenkins J, Morozova I, Mätz-Rensing K, Regalla A, Said AR, Schuenemann VJ, Sow SO, Spencer JS, Ulrich M, Zoubi H, Cole ST, Wittig RM, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH. Leprosy in wild chimpanzees. Nature 2021; 598:652-656. [PMID: 34646009 PMCID: PMC8550970 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03968-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Humans are considered as the main host for Mycobacterium leprae1, the aetiological agent of leprosy, but spillover has occurred to other mammals that are now maintenance hosts, such as nine-banded armadillos and red squirrels2,3. Although naturally acquired leprosy has also been described in captive nonhuman primates4-7, the exact origins of infection remain unclear. Here we describe leprosy-like lesions in two wild populations of western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Cantanhez National Park, Guinea-Bissau and Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, West Africa. Longitudinal monitoring of both populations revealed the progression of disease symptoms compatible with advanced leprosy. Screening of faecal and necropsy samples confirmed the presence of M. leprae as the causative agent at each site and phylogenomic comparisons with other strains from humans and other animals show that the chimpanzee strains belong to different and rare genotypes (4N/O and 2F). These findings suggest that M. leprae may be circulating in more wild animals than suspected, either as a result of exposure to humans or other unknown environmental sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberley J Hockings
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
- Centre for Research in Anthropology (CRIA - NOVA FCSH), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Benjamin Mubemba
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Wildlife Sciences, School of Natural Resources, Copperbelt University, Kitwe, Zambia
| | - Charlotte Avanzi
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kamilla Pleh
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Ariane Düx
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elena Bersacola
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
- Centre for Research in Anthropology (CRIA - NOVA FCSH), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana Bessa
- Centre for Research in Anthropology (CRIA - NOVA FCSH), Lisbon, Portugal
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Marina Ramon
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Sonja Metzger
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Livia V Patrono
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jenny E Jaffe
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Andrej Benjak
- Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Camille Bonneaud
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Philippe Busso
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Emmanuel Couacy-Hymann
- Laboratoire National d'Appui au Développement Agricole/Laboratoire Central de Pathologie Animale, Bingerville, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Moussa Gado
- Programme National de Lutte Contre la Lèpre, Ministry of Public Health, Niamey, Niger
| | - Sebastien Gagneux
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roch C Johnson
- Centre Interfacultaire de Formation et de Recherche en Environnement pour le Développement Durable, University of Abomey-Calavi, Jericho, Cotonou, Benin
- Fondation Raoul Follereau, Paris, France
| | - Mamoudou Kodio
- Centre National d'Appui à la Lutte Contre la Maladie, Bamako, Mali
| | | | - Irina Morozova
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kerstin Mätz-Rensing
- Pathology Unit, German Primate Center, Leibniz-Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Aissa Regalla
- Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas, Dr. Alfredo Simão da Silva (IBAP), Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
| | - Abílio R Said
- Instituto da Biodiversidade e das Áreas Protegidas, Dr. Alfredo Simão da Silva (IBAP), Bissau, Guinea-Bissau
| | | | - Samba O Sow
- Centre National d'Appui à la Lutte Contre la Maladie, Bamako, Mali
| | - John S Spencer
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Markus Ulrich
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hyacinthe Zoubi
- Programme National d'Elimination de la Lèpre, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Stewart T Cole
- Global Health Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Fabian H Leendertz
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.
- Helmholtz Institute for One Health, Greifswald, Germany.
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Patrono LV, Pléh K, Samuni L, Ulrich M, Röthemeier C, Sachse A, Muschter S, Nitsche A, Couacy-Hymann E, Boesch C, Wittig RM, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH. Monkeypox virus emergence in wild chimpanzees reveals distinct clinical outcomes and viral diversity. Nat Microbiol 2020; 5:955-965. [PMID: 32341480 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-0706-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Monkeypox is a viral zoonotic disease on the rise across endemic habitats. Despite the growing importance of monkeypox virus, our knowledge on its host spectrum and sylvatic maintenance is limited. Here, we describe the recent repeated emergence of monkeypox virus in a wild, human-habituated western chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus, hereafter chimpanzee) population from Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Through daily monitoring, we show that further to causing its typical exanthematous syndrome, monkeypox can present itself as a severe respiratory disease without a diffuse rash. By analysing 949 non-invasively collected samples, we identify the circulation of at least two distinct monkeypox virus lineages and document the shedding of infectious particles in faeces and flies, suggesting that they could mediate indirect transmission. We also show that the carnivorous component of the Taï chimpanzees' diet, mainly consisting of the sympatric monkeys they regularly hunt, did not change nor shift towards rodent consumption (the presumed reservoir) before the outbreaks, suggesting that the sudden emergence of monkeypox virus in this population is probably due to changes in the ecology of the virus itself. Using long-term mortality surveillance data from Taï National Park, we provide evidence of little to no prior viral activity over at least two decades. We conclude that great ape sentinel systems devoted to the longitudinal collection of behavioural and health data can help clarify the epidemiology and clinical presentation of zoonotic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia V Patrono
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kamilla Pléh
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Ivory Coast
| | - Liran Samuni
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Ivory Coast
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Markus Ulrich
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Caroline Röthemeier
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Sachse
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Silvia Muschter
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens and German Reference Laboratory for Poxviruses (ZBS1), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens and German Reference Laboratory for Poxviruses (ZBS1), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Couacy-Hymann
- Laboratoire National D'appui au Développement Agricole/Laboratoire Central de Pathologie Animale, Bingerville, Ivory Coast
| | - Christophe Boesch
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Ivory Coast
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Ivory Coast
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Fabian H Leendertz
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany.
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Patrono LV, Bonfante F, Zanardello C, Terregino C, Capua I, Murcia PR. Phylogenetically distinct equine influenza viruses show different tropism for the swine respiratory tract. J Gen Virol 2015; 96:969-974. [PMID: 25593159 PMCID: PMC4631061 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.000049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 01/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses circulate in a wide range of animals. H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV) is an avian-origin virus that has established in dogs as canine influenza virus (CIV) and has also been isolated from camels and pigs. Previous work suggests that mutations acquired during EIV evolution might have played a role in CIV emergence. Given the potential role of pigs as a source of human infections, we determined the ability of H3N8 EIVs to replicate in pig cell lines and in respiratory explants. We show that phylogenetically distinct EIVs display different infection phenotypes along the pig respiratory tract, but not in cell lines. Our results suggest that EIV displays a dynamic host range along its evolutionary history, supporting the view that evolutionary processes play important roles in host range and tropism and also underscoring the utility of using explant cultures to study influenza pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia V. Patrono
- Department of Animal Medicine, Production and Health, Doctoral School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Francesco Bonfante
- Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Claudia Zanardello
- Division of Specialised Diagnostics and Histopathology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Calogero Terregino
- Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Ilaria Capua
- Division of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Padova, Italy
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK
- Correspondence Pablo R. Murcia
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