Anti-inflammatory activity of small-molecule antagonists of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) in mice

Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) is currently investigated as a potential therapeutic target in diseases with underlying inflammation like sepsis and arthritis. We reported the discovery, by virtual screening and biological testing, of eight TLR2 antagonists (AT1-AT8) which showed TLR2-inhibitory activity in human cells (Murgueitio et al., 2014). In this study, we have deepened in the mechanism of action and selectivity (TLR2/1 or TLR2/6) of those compounds in mouse primary cells and in vivo. The antagonists reduced, in a dose-dependent way the TNFα production (e.g. AT5 IC₅₀ 7.4 μM) and also reduced the nitric oxide (NO) formation in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM). Treatment of BMDM with the antagonists showed that downstream of TLR2, MAPKs phosphorylation and IkBα degradation was reduced. Notably, in a mouse model of tri-acylated lipopeptide (Pam3CSK4)-induced inflammation, AT5 attenuated the TNFα and IL-6 inflammatory response. Further, the effect of AT5 in the stimulation of BMDM by the endogenous alarmin HMGB1 was investigated. Our results indicate that AT4-AT7 and, particularly AT5 appear as good starting points for the development of inhibitors targeting TLR2 in inflammatory disorders.

Parvalbumin interneurons and calretinin fibers arising from the thalamic nucleus reuniens degenerate in the subiculum after kainic acid-induced seizures

The subiculum is the major output area of the hippocampus. It is closely interconnected with the entorhinal cortex and other parahippocampal areas. In animal models of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and in TLE patients it exerts increased network excitability and may crucially contribute to the propagation of limbic seizures. Using immunohistochemistry and in situ-hybridization we now investigated neuropathological changes affecting parvalbumin and calretinin containing neurons in the subiculum and other parahippocampal areas after kainic acid-induced status epilepticus. We observed prominent losses in parvalbumin containing interneurons in the subiculum and entorhinal cortex, and in the principal cell layers of the pre- and parasubiculum. Degeneration of parvalbumin-positive neurons was associated with significant precipitation of parvalbumin-immunoreactive debris 24 h after kainic acid injection. In the subiculum the superficial portion of the pyramidal cell layer was more severely affected than its deep part. In the entorhinal cortex, the deep layers were more severely affected than the superficial ones. The decrease in number of parvalbumin-positive neurons in the subiculum and entorhinal cortex correlated with the number of spontaneous seizures subsequently experienced by the rats. The loss of parvalbumin neurons thus may contribute to the development of spontaneous seizures. On the other hand, surviving parvalbumin neurons revealed markedly increased expression of parvalbumin mRNA notably in the pyramidal cell layer of the subiculum and in all layers of the entorhinal cortex. This indicates increased activity of these neurons aiming to compensate for the partial loss of this functionally important neuron population. Furthermore, calretinin-positive fibers terminating in the molecular layer of the subiculum, in sector CA1 of the hippocampus proper and in the entorhinal cortex degenerated together with their presumed perikarya in the thalamic nucleus reuniens. In addition, a significant loss of calretinin containing interneurons was observed in the subiculum. Notably, the loss in parvalbumin positive neurons in the subiculum equaled that in human TLE. It may result in marked impairment of feed-forward inhibition of the temporo-ammonic pathway and may significantly contribute to epileptogenesis. Similarly, the loss of calretinin-positive fiber tracts originating from the nucleus reuniens thalami significantly contributes to the rearrangement of neuronal circuitries in the subiculum and entorhinal cortex during epileptogenesis.

Delayed luminescence of high homeopathic potencies on sugar globuli

Delayed luminescence signals of Arg.met. CMf (100Mf), Canth. CMf, Bov. CMf absorbed onto sugar globuli was observed by exciting them at their known resonance frequency of 2.060 MHz. Arn. CMf also showed delayed luminescence when excited at 2.060 MHz and at 1.828 MHz. Alc. LMK (50MK) could not be excited by 2.060 MHz and showed properties of control globuli. Canth. LMK could not be excited at 2.006 MHz. The delayed luminescence signals were characterized by the coefficient B(2) typical of the delayed luminescence of non-living complex systems, and by the coefficient B(0) typical of living systems. Both coefficients can be considered as indicative of holistic quantum structures in homeopathic potencies.

Effect of colorpuncture on spontaneous photon emission in a subject suffering from multiple sclerosis

Spontaneous photon signals from four sites of a human subject suffering from multiple sclerosis were detected in 3600 bins of 50 milliseconds by a photo multiplier sensitive in 160-630 nm, before and after a session of colorpuncture treatment. Measurements were made in 22 sessions over a period of 9 months. Each signal was analyzed to determine if it was a quantum signal in a squeezed state. The analysis first generates 10 signals of bin sizes (50 to 500 milliseconds at 50 millisecond intervals) by merging the counts at contiguous bins of the observed signal and then estimates three squeezed state parameters (r, theta and phi) in these ten signals and nine other combinations of signals. All estimations yield r=2.72.10(-10), theta = 101.91 degrees and phi = 69.53 degrees for TolX=10(-8) in every signal of a healthy subject. These are normal values of the parameters. Other values of parameters in a signal of any estimation indicate some ailment. The deviation from the squeezed state description of a signal is quantified by a new property, "coherency index", which appears to be a good indicator of health. A session of colorpuncture treatment changed coherency indices of signals from different sides and provided relief to the subject suffering from multiple sclerosis. The changes in coherency indices and relief were temporary. Changes in coherency indices lasting for longer periods occurred after many sessions of treatment.

Influence of hypoxia and of hypoxemia on the development of cardiac activity in zebrafish larvae

Cardiac activity and anaerobic metabolism were analyzed in zebrafish larvae raised under normoxia (PO(2) = 20 kPa) and under chronic hypoxia (PO(2) = 10 kPa) at three different temperatures (25, 28, and 31 degrees C). Heart rate increased with development and with temperature. Under normoxia, cardiac output increased significantly at high temperature (31 degrees C), but not at 28 or at 25 degrees C. Under chronic hypoxia, however, heart rate as well as cardiac output increased at all temperatures in larvae at about hatching time or shortly thereafter. Cardiac activity of larvae raised for 2 wk after fertilization with a reduced hemoglobin oxygen-carrying capacity in their blood (hypoxemia; due to the presence of CO or of phenylhydrazine in the incubation water) was not different from control animals. Whole body lactate content of these animals did not increase. Thus there was no indication of a stimulated anaerobic energy metabolism. The increase in cardiac activity observed during hypoxia suggests that at about hatching time receptors are present that sense hypoxic conditions, and this information can be used to induce a stimulation of convective oxygen transport to compensate for a reduction in bulk oxygen diffusion in the face of a reduced oxygen gradient between environmental water and tissues. Under normoxia, however, the PO(2) gradient between environmental water and tissues and diffusional oxygen transport assure sufficient oxygen supply even if hemoglobin oxygen transport in the blood is severely impaired. Thus, under normoxic conditions and with a normal metabolic rate of the tissues, convective oxygen transport is not required until approximately 2 wk after fertilization.