Spatial orientation in virtual environment compared to real-world

Virtual reality (VR) is popular across many disciplines and has been increasingly used in sports as a training tool lately. However, it is not clear whether the spatial orientation of humans works equally within VR and in the real-world. In this paper, two studies are presented, in which natural body movements were allowed and demanded. Firstly, a series of verbal and walking distance estimation tests were conducted in both the virtual and the real environment. The non-parametric Friedman test with pairwise comparisons showed no significant differences neither in verbal nor in walking distance estimations between the conditions (all p > 0.05). However, shorter distances (0.9-1.5 m) were estimated more precisely than larger distances (2.6-2.8 m) in both environments. Secondly, a self-developed route recall test to examine the spatial orientation was performed in the virtual and the real environment. The participants visually perceived the predefined route and were instructed to follow these routes with their eyes blindfolded and afterward to return to their starting position. Between the ending and the starting position, no difference between the two environments was observed (p > 0.05). Based on these two studies, the performance of the human spatial orientation preliminarily verified the same in a virtual and real environment.

Alterations of costimulatory molecules and instructive cytokines expressed by dendritic cells in the microenvironment of an endogenous mouse lymphoma

Costimulatory surface molecules and instructive cytokines expressed by dendritic cells (DCs) determine the outcome of an immune response. In malignant disease, DCs are often functionally compromised. In most tumors studied so far, the deficient induction of effective T cell responses has been associated with a blockade of DC maturation, but little has been known on DCs infiltrating malignant B cell lymphoma. Here, we investigated for the first time the phenotypic and functional status of DCs in B cell lymphoma, and we analyzed the network of DCs, tumor cells, natural killer (NK) cells and cytokines present in the tumor micromilieu. Therefor, we used an endogenous myc-transgenic mouse lymphoma model, because transplanted tumor cells foster an IFN-γ-driven Th1 antitumor response rather than an immunosuppressive environment, which is observed in autochthonous neoplasias. Lymphoma-infiltrating DCs showed a mature phenotype and a Th2-inducing cytokine pattern. This situation is in contrast to most human malignancies and mouse models described. Cellular contacts between DCs and tumor cells, which involved CD62L on the lymphoma, caused upregulation of costimulatory molecules, whereas IL-10 primarily derived from lymphoma cells induced an IL-12/IL-10 shift in DCs. Thus, alteration of costimulatory molecules and instructive cytokines was mediated by distinct mechanisms. Normal NK cells were able to additionally modulate DC maturation but this effect was absent in the lymphoma environment where IFN-γ production by NK cells was severely impaired. These data are relevant for establishing novel immunotherapeutic approaches against B cell lymphoma.

Recruitment of natural killer cells in advanced stages of endogenously arising B-cell lymphoma: implications for therapeutic cell transfer

During inflammation and in transplantable tumor models, natural killer (NK) cells are recruited to pathologic tissues and activated to produce proinflammatory cytokines favoring adaptive immune responses of the T-helper type 1 (Th1) type. Interferon (IFN)-γ is needed to induce chemokines that attract NK cells in transplanted tumors. Nothing, however, is known on NK-cell migration in spontaneous tumors. As effective recruitment is a prerequisite for therapeutic NK-cell transfer, we investigated the cytokine milieu and the mechanisms that are instrumental for NK-cell accumulation in an endogenous tumor model. We make use of λ-myc transgenic mice that harbor the c-myc oncogene and develop spontaneous B-cell lymphoma. In contrast to lymphomas induced by tumor cell injection, virtually no IFN-γ produced by NK or by other cells was present in the tumor environment, particularly in advanced stages. Dendritic cells showed an impaired expression of interleukin-12, which is suggestive of deficient Th1 priming. The IFN-γ-dependent chemokines CXCL9 and CXCL10 were pivotal for NK-cell migration in the endogenous lymphoma model. Although IFN-γ was absent in late tumor stages, there was still expression of CXCL9 and CXCL10 with an ongoing influx of NK cells. The results demonstrate that transplantable tumor models do not reflect the situation as found in endogenously arising neoplasia, because in the latter, effective Th1 and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses are presumably not induced because of impaired IFN-γ production. The data also suggest that CXCL9 and CXCL10 production and NK-cell migration become independent of IFN-γ during tumor progression, and therefore support approaches of adoptive NK-cell transfer that hold promise for treatment of cancer.