What's new in foot and ankle surgery

This update summarizes recent research pertaining to orthopaedic foot and ankle surgery that was published or presented between August 2011 and July 2012. The sources of these studies include The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (American and British Volumes); Foot and Ankle International; and the proceedings of Specialty Day at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS), on February 11, 2012, in San Francisco, California, and the summer meeting of the American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS), on June 20 through 23, 2012, in San Diego, California.

What's new in foot and ankle surgery

This update summarizes recent research pertaining to the subspecialty of orthopaedic foot and ankle surgery that was published or presented between August 2009 and July 2010. The sources of these studies include The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (American and British Volumes), Foot & Ankle International, and the proceedings of Specialty Day at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS), held on March 13, 2010, in New Orleans, Louisiana, and the summer meeting of the American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS), held on July 7 through 10, 2010, in National Harbor, Maryland.

Instability of the first metatarsal-cuneiform joint: diagnosis and discussion of an independent pain generator in the foot

BACKGROUND

First metatarsocuneiform (MC) instability is recognized as a pathologic contributor to hallux valgus. There are no studies identifying the first MC joint as an independent pain generator in the foot that may require surgical arthrodesis for its management.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The authors reviewed the records of all patients with this newly described pathology in the first MC joint. There were 61 patients with 85 feet who underwent a fluoroscopically guided local anesthetic injection into the first metatarsocuneiform joint to assess pain relief. Patient's complaints, physical exam findings, treatment decisions, patient characteristics, and radiographic findings were evaluated.

RESULTS

Seventy-nine percent of patients (67/85) injected had relief of their symptoms. Eight or these 67 patients were eventually treated with first MC arthrodesis with complete relief of symptoms. The average time from onset of symptoms to presentation was 21 (range, 1 to 72) months. Eighty-five percent of feet (72/85) had multiple previous diagnoses. Radiographic plantar widening of the first M-C joint on weightbearing views was inconsistent with pathology.

CONCLUSION

The first MC joint is an independent pain generator in the foot that can have variable presentations. Radiographic data can often be helpful, but clinical exam findings are paramount in the diagnosis. Fluoroscopically-guided long acting local anesthetic injections of this joint are helpful in the diagnosis, especially in the patient with multiple possible pain generators in the foot and ankle. Failure to recognize the first MC joint as a source of pain may lead to delay in treatment, misdiagnosis, and mistreatment of foot pathology.

The treatment of unstable ankle fractures in patients over eighty years of age

BACKGROUND

The current study examined the outcomes of operative treatment of unstable ankle fractures in patients at least 80 years old at the time of injury.

METHODS

Of 2,682 patients who presented for treatment of ankle fractures, 17 patients met the study criteria. These patients had open reduction and internal fixation after sustaining 15 closed and two open unstable ankle fractures. There were 11 type B fractures and six type C fractures by the Danis-Weber classification, and 12 supination-external rotation and five pronation-external rotation fractures by the Laugen-Hansen classification systems.

RESULTS

When noncompliant patients who developed complications were removed from analysis, the fixation failure and deep infection rates were 0% each.

CONCLUSIONS

These results highlight the importance of patient compliance and non-weightbearing status in the treatment of ankle fractures in patients over 80 years.

Comparison of MRI and local anesthetic tendon sheath injection in the diagnosis of posterior tibial tendon tenosynovitis

BACKGROUND

The modalities currently available to clinicians to confirm the clinical suspicion of posterior tibial tendinitis include MRI, CT, sonography, tenography, and local anesthetic tendon sheath injections. There are no reports in the literature comparing local anesthetic tendon sheath injection to MRI as tools for diagnosing posterior tibial tenosynovitis.

METHODS

The authors reviewed the records of all patients with stage 1 posterior tibial tendon dysfunction between the dates of September 1, 2001, to November 21, 2004. Fifteen patients (17 ankles) had a local anesthetic injection into the posterior tibial tendon sheath and MRI for clinically suspected tenosynovitis of the posterior tibial tendon.

RESULTS

Seventeen (100%) of 17 ankles had complete relief of symptoms after the local anesthetic tendon sheath injections. Fifteen (88%) of 17 ankles had abnormally increased fluid signal within the posterior tibial tendon sheath seen on MRI. Two of two ankles (100%), after having negative MRI findings, had complete relief with a local anesthetic tendon sheath injection. In addition, conservative treatment failed in these two patients, and they subsequently had tenosynovectomy with gross confirmation at surgery of inflammatory changes within the tendon sheath. These two patients had complete symptom relief after tenosynovectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Local tendon sheath injections and MRI are both reliable diagnostic tools. Injection of the posterior tibial tendon is an accurate, safe, and sensitive modality useful in patients in whom MRI studies are negative in the face of continued clinical suspicion.

Stress fracture as a complication of autogenous bone graft harvest from the distal tibia

BACKGROUND

Autogenous bone graft from the distal tibia provides cancellous bone graft for foot and ankle operations, and it has osteogenic and osteoconductive properties. The site is in close proximity to the foot and ankle, and published retrospective studies show low morbidity from the procedure.

METHODS

One-hundred autografts were obtained from the distal tibia between 2000 and 2003. In four cases the distal tibial bone graft harvest resulted in a stress fracture. There were three women and one man.

RESULTS

The average time of diagnosis of the stress fracture from the operation was 1.8 months. All stress fractures healed with a short course (average 2.4 months) of cast immobilization.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that a stress fracture from the donor site of autogenous bone graft of the distal tibia occurs and can be successfully treated nonoperatively.

Incidence of foot and ankle injuries in West Point cadets with pes planus compared to the general cadet population

BACKGROUND

The relationship between pes planus and injuries of the lower extremity is controversial. However, few studies have used standardized means of evaluating and defining pes planus, and none have had a controlled patient population. The objective of this study was to evaluate an ideal population of physically active individuals to establish a potential correlation between pes planus, as defined by a standardized method, and injuries to the lower extremity.

METHODS

A standardized technique for evaluating arch height, based on a midfoot ratio established by Harris mat print calculations, was used to assess a consecutive series of 512 newly entered West Point cadets. Pes planus was defined as more than 2 standard deviations above the mean midfoot ratio of the population. After 46 months, a retrospective chart review was done to identify lower extremity injuries sustained in this group of young healthy patients. The results of the footprint analysis were correlated with the medical record findings.

RESULTS

Thirty-three cadets were found to have pes planus; 13 had only left foot involvement, 15 had right foot only involvement, and five had bilateral pes planus. There were no cavus feet. Statistically significant relationships were seen between the degree of pes planus and total number of injuries sustained (p = 0.007), the overall size of the foot and total number of injuries (p = 0.041), left flat feet and left midfoot injuries (p = 0.028), left pes planus and right midfoot injuries (p = 0.008), left pes planus and left knee injuries (p = 0.038), and right pes planus and right knee injuries (p = 0.027). Women had smaller feet (p = 0.000), smaller midfoot ratios (right, p = 0.013; left p = 0.003), yet they had an increased number of injuries (Pearson's coefficient -0.119; p = 0.007).

CONCLUSIONS

The current study found significant relationships between pes planus and number of injuries sustained over a 4-year period at West Point. While women were found to have smaller feet and lesser degrees of pes planus, they sustained more injuries than men.

Ipsilateral arthrodesis of the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints of the hallux

BACKGROUND

Arthrodesis of the metatarsophalangeal joint of the hallux is frequently used for treatment of a variety of disorders. However, occasionally patients who have complex deformities or degenerative changes of the hallux require reconstruction of both the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints. There is concern that arthrodesis of both the metatarsophalangeal and ipsilateral interphalangeal joints could be problematic, interfering with the toe-off phase of gait or with shoewear.

METHODS

A retrospective evaluation of seven feet in five patients who had simultaneous arthrodesis of the metatarsophalangeal and ipsilateral interphalangeal joints of the hallux was undertaken. These cases represented all the patients who had this procedure within the practice of three orthopaedic foot and ankle specialists, totaling over 50 surgeon-years of experience. The indication for surgery in all patients was moderate to severe pain with ambulation with severe fixed deformity of both the interphalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints of the hallux. All patients had pain that limited their ambulation and interfered with their daily activities. All patients required modified shoewear to accommodate their foot deformity. The mean age of patients was 53 years. The patients were evaluated by questionnaire and radiographic examination.

RESULTS

At an average of 46 months followup, all patients had resolution of their pain and were able to wear nonprescription shoes. All had limitations that interfered with full athletic activities but had no limitation of daily activities. Three patients who were employed returned to their occupations and two who were not employed were able to continue housework.

CONCLUSION

Arthrodesis of the metatarsophalangeal and ipsilateral interphalangeal joints of the hallux results in painless function in patients with moderate demands.

Value of radiographs in the initial evaluation of nontraumatic adult heel pain

BACKGROUND

Adult patients with nontraumatic plantar heel pain often present to orthopaedic surgeons for evaluation. A thorough history and physical examination are often sufficient for diagnosis, yet radiographs usually are ordered during the initial evaluation. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the value and cost-effectiveness of these radiographs.

METHODS

A retrospective chart and radiographic review of 157 consecutive adults (215 heels) presenting with nontraumatic heel pain was done to evaluate the utility of routine radiographs in the initial evaluation.

RESULTS

The most common diagnosis was plantar fasciitis (80.9%, 174 of 215). Radiographs were normal in (17.2%, 37 of 215), and incidental radiographic findings were observed in 81.4% (175 of 215). The most common incidental findings were plantar calcaneal spurs (59.5%, 128 of 215) and Achilles spurs (46.5%, 100 of 215). Only (2%, 4 of 215) of all patients had abnormal findings that prompted further evaluation.

CONCLUSIONS

Routine radiographs are of limited value in the initial evaluation of nontraumatic plantar heel pain in adults and were not necessary in the initial evaluation. Radiographs should be reserved for patients who do not improve as expected or present with an unusual history or confounding physical findings.

The radiographic morphology of foot deformities in patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva

BACKGROUND

The most consistent deformities that allow early diagnosis of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva are the presence of bilateral short first rays and hallux valgus. The purpose of this study was to describe the radiographic features observed in the feet of patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva.

METHODS

The radiographs of 26 feet (15 patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva) were reviewed to evaluate the radiographic changes that occur in the first ray. Variables analyzed were the hallux valgus (HV) angle, the distal metatarsal articular (DMA) angle, the proximal phalangeal articular (PPA) angle, the intermetatarsal (IM) angle, ratio of the lengths of the first and second metatarsal lengths (MT1:MT2), and the first and second ray length ratio. The length ratios were then subtracted from similar ratios in radiographs of age- and gender-matched normal patients previously reported.

RESULTS

The proximal phalanx was consistently shortened but morphologically dissimilar from subject to subject. Asymmetry was noted in some patients with bilateral radiographs. The mean HV angle was 28 degrees, and the mean IM angle was 10 degrees. The mean DMA angle was 33 degrees, and the mean PPA angle was 14 degrees. The MT1:MT2 ratio was 0.89, and the mean first ray to second ray length ratio was 0.87. The mean of the differences in the MT1:MT2 and first and second ray length ratios in patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva compared to the normal controls were 0.05 and 0.01, respectively. Fusion occurred between the abnormal tibial epiphysis of the proximal phalanx and metatarsal head with advancing age, and 68% of the metatarsal heads were fused with the abnormal proximal phalangeal epiphysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Foot pathology in patients with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva is variable but consistently involves an abnormality of the tibial aspect of the proximal phalangeal epiphysis of the hallux. This results in the clinical observation of hallux valgus in these patients. The first metatarsal is consistently shortened, and fusion between the epiphysis of the abnormal proximal phalanx and the shortened first metatarsal head occurs with advancing age.

A comparison of the monofilament with other testing modalities for foot ulcer susceptibility

We studied the number of testing sites and the proportion needed to be insensate for the optimal assessment of foot ulcer risk with the 10 g monofilament. Also, we compared the sensitivity and specificity of the 10 g monofilament with other methodologies. Fifty-two individuals with either a current foot ulcer, a history of a foot ulcer or the presence of Charcot neuroarthopathy and 51 individuals with no history of any of these conditions were assessed with the 10 g monofilament at four sites on each foot, the 128 Hz tuning fork at the halluces, the Biothesiometer at the halluces and the modified neuropathy disability score. Sensitivities and specificities were calculated for the various modalities. The Biothesiometer and the neuropathy disability score had the highest sensitivities (0.92 for both). The 128 Hz tuning fork tested only at the halluces (criterion: >or=1 insensate site) had the same sensitivity (0.86) as the 10 g monofilament tested at eight sites (criterion: >or=1 insensate site) with similar specificities (0.56 and 0.58, respectively). The Biothesiometer and the modified neuropathy disability score tend to be more sensitive than the 10 g monofilament for the assessment of individuals at risk for foot ulcers. The 128 Hz tuning fork tested at only two sites is as sensitive as the 10 g monofilament tested at eight sites. These data suggest that the 10 g monofilament may not be the optimum methodology for identifying individuals at risk of foot ulcers.

A randomized trial of two irremovable off-loading devices in the management of plantar neuropathic diabetic foot ulcers

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a removable cast walker (RCW) rendered irremovable (iTCC) with the total contact cast (TCC) in the treatment of diabetic neuropathic plantar foot ulcers.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In a prospective, randomized, controlled trial, 41 consecutive diabetic patients with chronic, nonischemic, neuropathic plantar foot ulcers were randomly assigned to one of two groups: a RCW rendered irremovable by wrapping it with a single layer of fiberglass casting material (i.e., an iTCC) or a standard TCC. Primary outcome measures were the proportion of patients with ulcers that healed at </=12 weeks, healing rates, complication rates, cast placement/removal times, and costs.

RESULTS

The proportions of patients with ulcers that healed within 12 weeks in the iTCC and TCC groups were 80 and 74%, respectively (94 and 93%, respectively, when patients who were lost to follow-up were excluded). Survival analysis (healing rates) was statistically equivalent in the two groups, as were complication rates, but with a trend toward benefit in the iTCC group. The iTCC took significantly less time to place and remove than the TCC with 39% and 36% reductions, respectively. There was also an overall lower cost associated with the use of the iTCC compared with the TCC.

CONCLUSIONS

The iTCC may be equally efficacious, faster to place, easier to use, and less expensive than the TCC in the treatment of diabetic plantar neuropathic foot ulcers.

Evaluation and treatment of chronic ankle pain

The evaluation and treatment of chronic ankle pain presents a challenge to the orthopaedic surgeon. A detailed history helps to determine causative factors resulting from earlier trauma or surgery. A careful physical examination and radiographic studies also are helpful in making an accurate diagnosis, which is the basis for choosing a specific and effective treatment regimen.

Lesser metatarsophalangeal joints: intra-articular distension, volumetric measurements, and changes of position

Plantarflexion of the second metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint with intra-articular injection has previously been observed and commented upon, and the purpose of this study was to determine motion of the lesser toes with direct fluid infusion into the lesser MTP joints. Fluid distension was found to cause variable postural changes in all lesser toes; the most consistent change was plantarflexion of the second metatarsophalangeal joint. Dorsiflexion of the third, fourth, and fifth MTP joints was observed, but less reliable than plantarflexion of the second MTP joint. The average volume in each of the lesser MTP joints was less than 1 cc. Plantarflexion of the second MTP joint was usually, but not always, indicative of intra-articular distention. Aspiration of these joints (given their small volume capacity) may not be a reliable or therapeutically useful technique.

Foot and ankle experience in orthopaedic residency

BACKGROUND

Dedicated orthopaedic residency training in the musculoskeletal discipline of foot and ankle is an important contribution to the development of a well-rounded orthopaedic surgeon. Current residency training guidelines are vague and do not require specific experience or proficiency in this discipline.

METHODS

A one-page questionnaire on commitment to foot and ankle education in American Orthopaedic Surgery residency training programs was completed by all 148 program directors.

RESULTS

Eighty of the programs (54.1%) had a single faculty member dedicated to foot and ankle orthopaedics, while 21 (14.2%) did not have a faculty member with a specific interest or commitment to problems related to the foot and ankle. Fifteen programs (10.1%) did not have a committed faculty member, nor did their residents have a clinical rotation dedicated to foot and ankle. Ninety-six programs (64.9%) had at least one clinical rotation dedicated to foot and ankle. Fifty-two (35.1%) did not. Thirty-three (34.7%) of those programs with a dedicated foot and ankle experience assigned residents during at least two periods of their training. Of those programs with a single foot-specific rotation, the most common year for training was in the PGY3 year (27 of 63, 42.9%). Of the 60 months' duration of most orthopaedic residency programs, 39 of 96 (40.6%) programs with a dedicated clinical foot and ankle rotation allocated an average of 12 weeks to foot and ankle. Twenty-six (27.1%) allocated less than 3 total months, and 31 (32.3%) allocated 16 to 24 weeks of dedicated foot and ankle experience.

CONCLUSIONS

Current residency training in the United States does not universally require a commitment to foot and ankle education. A large number of residency programs do not have a faculty member committed to foot and ankle education, and almost one-third have no time specifically allocated to foot and ankle education.

Technique tip: a revised method of the Cotton test for intra-operative evaluation of syndesmotic injuries

The Cotton test assists the orthopaedic surgeon in the intra-operative evaluation of potential incompetence of the ankle syndesmosis. A variation of this test is proposed that simplifies this test, while providing a direct distraction force to the syndesmotic ligamentous complex.

Foot and ankle injuries in motor vehicle accidents

BACKGROUND

We studied foot and ankle (F/A) injuries that occurred in motor vehicle accidents treated in a Level 1 trauma center.

METHODS

The records of F/A injuries of 2248 consecutive orthopedic patients were reviewed to find foot and ankle injuries.

RESULTS

Pilon fractures were common. Motor Vehicle Accident (MVA) occupants with F/A injuries had a higher injury Severity Score than those without (17.9 vs. 11.6, p <. 001). MVA F/A injury risk was higher without restraint [relative risk ratio (rrr) 1.68, p <. 0032] than with restraint except for air bagged drivers who were similar to unrestrained drivers (rrr 1.18, p > .05, NS).

CONCLUSION

Patients with F/A injuries may have serious associated injuries. Air bags may not protect feet.

Subtalar Joint Arthrography

The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy and the specificity of an optimum technique of posterior talocalcaneal/posterior subtalar (PST) joint arthrography and anesthetic injection in patients with hindfoot pain. Fifty-five PST joints were studied in 55 patients. The posteromedial approach was used in the first 24 patients, followed by an anterolateral approach in 31 patients. The ease of performance, success of confirming PST needle position, and adverse effects were noted. After contrast injection, a combination of 1% lidocaine and 0.5% bupivacaine was injected. Results consisted of 47 arthrographically confirmed PST injections. The posteromedial approach was deemed more difficult; three patients had tendon sheath opacification and four had unwanted anesthesia of the toes. The anterolateral approach was technically easier and no extra-articular structures were visualized or anesthetized. Therefore, PST arthrography with anesthetic injection is optimized with an anterolateral approach.

Results of operative fixation of unstable ankle fractures in geriatric patients

It is widely accepted that operative fixation of unstable ankle fractures yields predictably good outcomes in the general population. The current literature, however reports less acceptable results in the geriatric population age 65 years and older. The current study analyzes the outcome of the surgical treatment of unstable ankle fractures in patients at least 65 years old. Twenty three patient over 65 years old were surgically treated after sustaining 21 (91%) closed and 2 (9%) open grade II unstable ankle fractures. Fractures were classified according to the Danis-Weber and Lauge-Hansen schemes. Fracture type was predominantly Weber B (21/23, 91%), or supination external rotation stage IV (21/23, 91%). Fracture union rate was 100%. There were three significant complications including a lateral wound dehiscence with delayed fibular union in an open fracture dislocation, and two below knee amputations, neither of which was directly related to the fracture treatment. There were three minor complications; one superficial wound infection and two cases of prolonged incision drainage, all of which resolved without further surgical intervention. Complications were associated with open fractures and preexisting systemic disease. These results indicate that open reduction and internal fixation of unstable ankle fractures in geriatric patients is an efficacious treatment regime that with results that are comparable to the general population.

Measurement of isolated subtalar range of motion: a cadaver study

Fifteen fresh-frozen cadaveric lower extremities were studied to evaluate the reliability of measuring subtalar motion using a bubble inclinometer. There was high intra-observer reliability for manual inversion and eversion of the subtalar joint with the tibiotalar joint locked and unlocked. Poor correlation of radiographic and clinical measurements questioned the validity of bubble inclinometer measurements. The contribution of the tibiotalar joint to apparent subtalar motion, as measured clinically and radiographically, was found to be one-third of the arc of motion, as compared to motion measured clinically and radiographically with the tibiotalar joint locked.

Kinematics of a total arthroplasty of the ankle: comparison to normal ankle motion

Although the concept of a total ankle arthroplasty has been advanced as a method for treating severe ankle arthritis, the clinical experience with all of the models developed has been discouraging. Both the constrained designs, which maximize joint contact area by restricting the available motion, and the unconstrained designs, which allow more normal motion at the expense of higher contact stresses, uniformly result in implant loosening, pain, and clinical failure in 2 to 7 years. This has led to the recommendation against the use of a total ankle arthroplasty except in very low-demand patients. Failure of ankle implants can be ascribed to either anatomic considerations (e.g.--the talus is too small to accommodate the stress transfers of a prosthesis), or mechanical etiologies. Abnormal 3-dimensional motion of the ankle following arthroplasty would fall into the latter category. This study examined the motion that occurs after implantation of an unconstrained-type total ankle arthroplasty. Using previously validated methodology, axially loaded ankle specimens were cycled through an arc of plantarflex/dorsiflexion while measuring the resulting coupled internal/external and varus/valgus rotations. The average coupled motions in prosthetic ankles were not significantly different than their intact controls. There was, however, a significantly increased amount of hysteresis (defined as the difference between the upper and lower pathways of coupled motion at any given sagittal position) that occurred as the ankle was dorsiflexed and plantar flexed. The increased hysteresis was seen in both the axial and coronal planes. This indicates that there was a greater permitted envelop of motion in the prosthetic ankles compared to normal ankles. It is hypothesized that this subtle change in ankle kinematics caused by the arthroplasty leads to abnormal stress transfer at the prosthesis-bone interface, thereby promoting early implant failure.

Efficacy of three-phase bone scans in evaluating diabetic foot ulcers

To evaluate the utility of bone scans in determining the treatment of diabetic patients with foot ulcers, a retrospective study was conducted. Medical records were reviewed for clinical signs of infection, laboratory data, and the radiologists' interpretations of imaging studies. During the study period, 34 bone scans were obtained by the treating physicians to evaluate diabetic foot ulcers. Among these, 22 of 34 bone scans were markedly confirmatory of being "consistent with osteomyelitis," 8 of 34 were moderately confirmatory ("indeterminate with regard to osteomyelitis"), and 4 of 34 were not confirmatory ("not consistent with osteomyelitis"). Of the 22 patients in the markedly confirmatory group, eight patients with clinical findings of uncontrolled infection or gangrene were treated with partial or complete amputation, whereas all others (14 patients) were treated with local wound care+/-intravenous antibiotics. Among the eight bone scans interpreted as indeterminate, three patients required partial or complete amputation, whereas the other five patients were managed with local wound care. Of the four patients with nonconfirmatory bone scans, two patients had evidence of dry gangrene and required amputation, whereas the other two patients did not have clinical evidence of infection or gangrene and were treated with local wound care. There was no significant difference in the amputation rate for patients with confirmatory, indeterminate, or nonconfirmatory bone scans for osteomyelitis (36%, 37%, and 50%, respectively) (P > 0.5). Therefore, the authors concluded that the ultimate treatment should be based on clinical indicators of the presence of uncontrolled infection or gangrene rather than on bone scan findings.

Role of the peroneal tendons in the production of the deformed foot with posterior tibial tendon deficiency

Ten patients were identified with traumatic, complete common peroneal nerve palsy, with no previous foot or ankle surgery or trauma distal to the knee, who had undergone anterior transfer of the posterior tibial tendon to the midfoot. Six of these patients had a transfer to the midfoot and four had a Bridle procedure with tenodesis of half of the posterior tibial tendon to the peroneus longus tendon. Average follow-up was 74.9 months (range, 18-351 months). All patients' feet were compared assessing residual muscle strength, the longitudinal arch, and motion at the ankle, subtalar, and Chopart's joint. Weightbearing lateral X-rays and Harris mat studies were done on both feet. In no case was any valgus hindfoot deformity associated with posterior tibial tendon rupture found. It seems that the pathologic condition associated with a posterior tibial tendon deficient foot will not manifest itself if peroneus brevis function is absent.

Osteoblastoma of the foot and ankle

A total of 329 patients with osteoblastoma were retrospectively reviewed from the archives of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, of which 41 (12.5%) presented with tumors in the foot and ankle. This was the third most common site of disease after the spine and femur. Overall, the mean age was 22.5 years, which was the same for the foot and ankle subset of patients; however, there was a significant male predominance in foot and ankle patients compared with the whole group. The majority of patients were skeletally mature (85.4%). Clinically, most patients presented with pain (97.2%), although one-third of the total related a history of antecedent trauma. The interval between the onset of symptoms and biopsy was 84 days (range, 0-572 days). Radiographically, the majority of lesions were in the hindfoot (N = 18; 44%) of which 16 of 18 tumors (89%) were in the talus. Of these, one-half were subperiosteal and dorsally based and were associated with osseous tumor matrix and a soft tissue mass. Two osteoblastomas, both in the metatarsals, transitioned into sarcomas; the rest were histologically benign. For diagnostic purposes, it was essential to obtain clinical, radiographic, and histologic correlation.

Congenital absence of the hallux fibular sesamoid: a case report and review of the literature

Congenital absence of the fibular sesamoid of the hallux is an extremely rare condition. We could find only one previously reported case in the literature. The authors present a second case of congenital absence of the fibular sesamoid and a review of the literature regarding the clinical significance of this anomaly.

Management of heel pain in the inflammatory arthritides

Subcalcaneal pain is a common complaint presented to the orthopaedist. Excessive attention to mechanical or traumatic causes may result in an improper diagnosis if rheumatologic or systemic conditions are not considered in the differential diagnosis. Systemic conditions associated with heel pain are reviewed and a conservative treatment protocol is presented that should help to obtain a correct diagnosis and to lead to effective management of this common condition.

Thromboembolism after foot and ankle surgery. A multicenter study

Thromboembolic disease presents a potentially fatal complication to patients undergoing orthopaedic surgery. Although the incidence after hip and knee surgery has been studied and documented, its incidence after surgery of the foot and ankle is unknown. For this reason, a prospective multicenter study was undertaken to identify patients with clinically evident thromboembolic disease to evaluate potential risk factors. Two thousand seven hundred thirty-three patients were evaluated for preoperative risk factors and postoperative thromboembolic events. There were six clinically significant thromboembolic events, including four nonfatal pulmonary emboli, after foot and ankle surgery. The incidence of deep vein thrombosis was six of 2733 (0.22%) and that of nonfatal pulmonary emboli was four of 2733 (0.15%). Factors found to correlate with an increased incidence of deep vein thrombosis were nonweightbearing status and immobilization after surgery. On the basis of these results, routine prophylaxis for thromboembolic disease after foot and ankle surgery probably is not warranted.