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van Mever M, He B, van Veen M, Slaats J, Buijs MM, Wieringa JE, Hankemeier T, de Winter P, Ramautar R. Capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry for creatinine analysis in residual clinical plasma samples and comparison with gold standard assay. Electrophoresis 2024. [PMID: 38456383 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202300264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
When hospitalized, infants, particularly preterm, are often subjected to multiple painful needle procedures to collect sufficient blood for metabolic screening or diagnostic purposes using standard clinical tests. For example, at least 100 µL of whole blood is required to perform one creatinine plasma measurement with enzymatic colorimetric assays. As capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) utilizing a sheathless porous tip interface only requires limited amounts of sample for in-depth metabolic profiling studies, the aim of this work was to assess the utility of this method for the determination of creatinine in low amounts of plasma using residual blood samples from adults and infants. By using a starting amount of 5 µL of plasma and an injection volume of only 6.7 nL, a detection limit (S/N = 3) of 30 nM could be obtained for creatinine, and intra- and interday precisions (for peak area ratios) were below 3.2%. To shorten the electrophoretic separation time, a multi-segment injection (MSI) strategy was employed to analyze up to seven samples in one electrophoretic run. The findings obtained by CE-MS for creatinine in pretreated plasma were compared with the values acquired by an enzymatic colorimetric assay typically used in clinical laboratories for this purpose. The comparison revealed that CE-MS could be used in a reliable way for the determination of creatinine in residual plasma samples from infants and adults. Nevertheless, to underscore the clinical efficacy of this method, a subsequent investigation employing an expanded pool of plasma samples is imperative. This will not only enhance the method's diagnostic utility but also contribute to minimizing both the amount and frequency of blood collection required for diagnostic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlien van Mever
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bingshu He
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mariam van Veen
- Department of Pediatrics, Spaarne Gasthuis, Haarlem/Hoofddorp, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Universitair Medisch Centrum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Slaats
- Atalmedial Diagnostic Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Joanne E Wieringa
- Department of Pediatrics, Spaarne Gasthuis, Haarlem/Hoofddorp, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Hankemeier
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Peter de Winter
- Department of Pediatrics, Spaarne Gasthuis, Haarlem/Hoofddorp, The Netherlands
- Leuven Child and Health Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rawi Ramautar
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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2
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van Mever M, Mamani-Huanca M, Faught E, López-Gonzálvez Á, Hankemeier T, Barbas C, Schaaf MJM, Ramautar R. Application of a capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry metabolomics workflow in zebrafish larvae reveals new effects of cortisol. Electrophoresis 2024; 45:380-391. [PMID: 38072651 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202300186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
In contemporary biomedical research, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) is increasingly considered a model system, as zebrafish embryos and larvae can (potentially) fill the gap between cultured cells and mammalian animal models, because they can be obtained in large numbers, are small and can easily be manipulated genetically. Given that capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) is a useful analytical separation technique for the analysis of polar ionogenic metabolites in biomass-limited samples, the aim of this study was to develop and assess a CE-MS-based analytical workflow for the profiling of (endogenous) metabolites in extracts from individual zebrafish larvae and pools of small numbers of larvae. The developed CE-MS workflow was used to profile metabolites in extracts from pools of 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 40 zebrafish larvae. For six selected endogenous metabolites, a linear response (R2 > 0.98) for peak areas was obtained in extracts from these pools. The repeatability was satisfactory, with inter-day relative standard deviation values for peak area of 9.4%-17.7% for biological replicates (n = 3 over 3 days). Furthermore, the method allowed the analysis of over 70 endogenous metabolites in a pool of 12 zebrafish larvae, and 29 endogenous metabolites in an extract from only 1 zebrafish larva. Finally, we applied the optimized CE-MS workflow to identify potential novel targets of the mineralocorticoid receptor in mediating the effects of cortisol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlien van Mever
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Maricruz Mamani-Huanca
- Centre for Metabolomics and Bioanalysis (CEMBIO), Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - Erin Faught
- Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ángeles López-Gonzálvez
- Centre for Metabolomics and Bioanalysis (CEMBIO), Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - Thomas Hankemeier
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Coral Barbas
- Centre for Metabolomics and Bioanalysis (CEMBIO), Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marcel J M Schaaf
- Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rawi Ramautar
- Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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6
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He Y, van Mever M, Yang W, Huang L, Ramautar R, Rijksen Y, Vermeij WP, Hoeijmakers JHJ, Harms AC, Lindenburg PW, Hankemeier T. A Sample Preparation Method for the Simultaneous Profiling of Signaling Lipids and Polar Metabolites in Small Quantities of Muscle Tissues from a Mouse Model for Sarcopenia. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12080742. [PMID: 36005613 PMCID: PMC9413361 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12080742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabolic profiling of a wide range of chemical classes relevant to understanding sarcopenia under conditions in which sample availability is limited, e.g., from mouse models, small muscles, or muscle biopsies, is desired. Several existing metabolomics platforms that include diverse classes of signaling lipids, energy metabolites, and amino acids and amines would be informative for suspected biochemical pathways involved in sarcopenia. The sample limitation requires an optimized sample preparation method with minimal losses during isolation and handling and maximal accuracy and reproducibility. Here, two developed sample preparation methods, BuOH-MTBE-Water (BMW) and BuOH-MTBE-More-Water (BMMW), were evaluated and compared with previously reported methods, Bligh-Dyer (BD) and BuOH-MTBE-Citrate (BMC), for their suitability for these classes. The most optimal extraction was found to be the BMMW method, with the highest extraction recovery of 63% for the signaling lipids and 81% for polar metabolites, and an acceptable matrix effect (close to 1.0) for all metabolites of interest. The BMMW method was applied on muscle tissues as small as 5 mg (dry weight) from the well-characterized, prematurely aging, DNA repair-deficient Ercc1∆/- mouse mutant exhibiting multiple-morbidities, including sarcopenia. We successfully detected 109 lipids and 62 polar targeted metabolites. We further investigated whether fast muscle tissue isolation is necessary for mouse sarcopenia studies. A muscle isolation procedure involving 15 min at room temperature revealed a subset of metabolites to be unstable; hence, fast sample isolation is critical, especially for more oxidative muscles. Therefore, BMMW and fast muscle tissue isolation are recommended for future sarcopenia studies. This research provides a sensitive sample preparation method for the simultaneous extraction of non-polar and polar metabolites from limited amounts of muscle tissue, supplies a stable mouse muscle tissue collection method, and methodologically supports future metabolomic mechanistic studies of sarcopenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng He
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marlien van Mever
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wei Yang
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Luojiao Huang
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rawi Ramautar
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Yvonne Rijksen
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, 3521 AL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Wilbert P. Vermeij
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, 3521 AL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan H. J. Hoeijmakers
- Princess Máxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, 3521 AL Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Institute for Genome Stability in Aging and Disease, Cologne Excellence Cluster for Cellular Stress Responses in Aging-Associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Amy C. Harms
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Peter W. Lindenburg
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
- Research Group Metabolomics, Leiden Center for Applied Bioscience, University of Applied Sciences Leiden, 2333 CK Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas Hankemeier
- Metabolomics and Analytics Centre, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +31-71-527-1340
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7
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Drouin N, van Mever M, Zhang W, Tobolkina E, Ferre S, Servais AC, Gou MJ, Nyssen L, Fillet M, Lageveen-Kammeijer GS, Nouta J, Chetwynd AJ, Lynch I, Thorn JA, Meixner J, Lößner C, Taverna M, Liu S, Tran NT, Francois Y, Lechner A, Nehmé R, Al Hamoui Dit Banni G, Nasreddine R, Colas C, Lindner HH, Faserl K, Neusüß C, Nelke M, Lämmerer S, Perrin C, Bich-Muracciole C, Barbas C, Gonzálvez Á, Guttman A, Szigeti M, Britz-McKibbin P, Kroezen Z, Shanmuganathan M, Nemes P, Portero EP, Hankemeier T, Codesido S, González-Ruiz V, Rudaz S, Ramautar R. Capillary Electrophoresis-Mass Spectrometry at Trial by Metabo-Ring: Effective Electrophoretic Mobility for Reproducible and Robust Compound Annotation. Anal Chem 2020; 92:14103-14112. [PMID: 32961048 PMCID: PMC7581015 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c03129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Capillary zone electrophoresis-mass spectrometry (CE-MS) is a mature analytical tool for the efficient profiling of (highly) polar and ionizable compounds. However, the use of CE-MS in comparison to other separation techniques remains underrepresented in metabolomics, as this analytical approach is still perceived as technically challenging and less reproducible, notably for migration time. The latter is key for a reliable comparison of metabolic profiles and for unknown biomarker identification that is complementary to high resolution MS/MS. In this work, we present the results of a Metabo-ring trial involving 16 CE-MS platforms among 13 different laboratories spanning two continents. The goal was to assess the reproducibility and identification capability of CE-MS by employing effective electrophoretic mobility (μeff) as the key parameter in comparison to the relative migration time (RMT) approach. For this purpose, a representative cationic metabolite mixture in water, pretreated human plasma, and urine samples spiked with the same metabolite mixture were used and distributed for analysis by all laboratories. The μeff was determined for all metabolites spiked into each sample. The background electrolyte (BGE) was prepared and employed by each participating lab following the same protocol. All other parameters (capillary, interface, injection volume, voltage ramp, temperature, capillary conditioning, and rinsing procedure, etc.) were left to the discretion of the contributing laboratories. The results revealed that the reproducibility of the μeff for 20 out of the 21 model compounds was below 3.1% vs 10.9% for RMT, regardless of the huge heterogeneity in experimental conditions and platforms across the 13 laboratories. Overall, this Metabo-ring trial demonstrated that CE-MS is a viable and reproducible approach for metabolomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Drouin
- Division
of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for
Drug Research, Leiden University, 2311 G Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marlien van Mever
- Division
of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for
Drug Research, Leiden University, 2311 G Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Wei Zhang
- Division
of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for
Drug Research, Leiden University, 2311 G Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Elena Tobolkina
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Ferre
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Catherine Servais
- Laboratory
for the Analysis of Medicines, Center for Interdisciplinary Research
on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Avenue Hippocrate 15, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Marie-Jia Gou
- Laboratory
for the Analysis of Medicines, Center for Interdisciplinary Research
on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Avenue Hippocrate 15, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Laurent Nyssen
- Laboratory
for the Analysis of Medicines, Center for Interdisciplinary Research
on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Avenue Hippocrate 15, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
- Department
of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Medicines
(CIRM), University of Liège, Avenue Hippocrate 15, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Marianne Fillet
- Laboratory
for the Analysis of Medicines, Center for Interdisciplinary Research
on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Avenue Hippocrate 15, B-4000 Liège, Belgium
| | | | - Jan Nouta
- Leiden University
Medical Center, Center for Proteomics
and Metabolomics, 2300 RC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew J. Chetwynd
- School
of Geography Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.
| | - Iseult Lynch
- School
of Geography Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.
| | - James A. Thorn
- AB
Sciex UK Ltd, Phoenix House, Lakeside Drive, Warrington, Cheshire WA1 1RX, U.K.
| | - Jens Meixner
- Agilent
Technologies R&D and Marketing GmbH & Co. KG, Hewlett-Packard-Straße 8, 76337 Waldbronn, Germany
| | | | - Myriam Taverna
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 92296 Châtenay-Malabry, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, 1 Rue Descartes, 75231 CEDEX 05 Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Liu
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 92296 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - N. Thuy Tran
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 92296 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Yannis Francois
- Laboratoire
de Spectromètrie de Masse des Interactions et des Systémes
(LSMIS) UMR 7140 (Unistra-CNRS), Université
de Strasbourg, 4 Rue Blaise Pascal, 67081 CEDEX Strasbourg, France
| | - Antony Lechner
- Laboratoire
de Spectromètrie de Masse des Interactions et des Systémes
(LSMIS) UMR 7140 (Unistra-CNRS), Université
de Strasbourg, 4 Rue Blaise Pascal, 67081 CEDEX Strasbourg, France
| | - Reine Nehmé
- Institut
de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA), CNRS FR 2708 - UMR 7311, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Ghassan Al Hamoui Dit Banni
- Institut
de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA), CNRS FR 2708 - UMR 7311, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Rouba Nasreddine
- Institut
de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA), CNRS FR 2708 - UMR 7311, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Cyril Colas
- Institut
de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA), CNRS FR 2708 - UMR 7311, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
- Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire,
CNRS-Université
d’Orléans, UPR 4311, 45071 CEDEX 2 Orléans, France
| | - Herbert H. Lindner
- Institute
of Clinical Biochemistry, Innsbruck Medical
University, Innrain 80-82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Klaus Faserl
- Institute
of Clinical Biochemistry, Innsbruck Medical
University, Innrain 80-82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christian Neusüß
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Aalen University, Beethovenstraße 1, 73430 Aalen, Germany
| | - Manuel Nelke
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Aalen University, Beethovenstraße 1, 73430 Aalen, Germany
| | - Stefan Lämmerer
- Faculty
of Chemistry, Aalen University, Beethovenstraße 1, 73430 Aalen, Germany
| | - Catherine Perrin
- Institut
des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247-CNRS-UM-ENSCM, Université de Montpellier, 34093 CEDEX 5 Montpellier, France
| | - Claudia Bich-Muracciole
- Institut
des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247-CNRS-UM-ENSCM, Université de Montpellier, 34093 CEDEX 5 Montpellier, France
| | - Coral Barbas
- Centre
for Metabolomics and Bioanalysis (CEMBIO), Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización
Montepríncipe, Boadilladel
Monte 28660, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ángeles
López Gonzálvez
- Centre
for Metabolomics and Bioanalysis (CEMBIO), Department of Chemistry
and Biochemistry, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización
Montepríncipe, Boadilladel
Monte 28660, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andras Guttman
- Horváth
Csaba Memorial Laboratory of Bioseparation Sciences, Research Center
for Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Doctoral School of Molecular
Medicine, University of Debrecen, 98 Nagyerdei Road, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
- Translation
Glycomics Group, Research Institute of Biomolecular and Chemical Engineering, University of Pannonia, 10 Egyetem Street, Veszprem H-8200, Hungary
- Sciex, 250 South Kraemer Boulevard, Brea, California 92821, United States
| | - Marton Szigeti
- Horváth
Csaba Memorial Laboratory of Bioseparation Sciences, Research Center
for Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Doctoral School of Molecular
Medicine, University of Debrecen, 98 Nagyerdei Road, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
- Translation
Glycomics Group, Research Institute of Biomolecular and Chemical Engineering, University of Pannonia, 10 Egyetem Street, Veszprem H-8200, Hungary
| | - Philip Britz-McKibbin
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, 1280 Main St. W., Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Zachary Kroezen
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, 1280 Main St. W., Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Meera Shanmuganathan
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, 1280 Main St. W., Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Peter Nemes
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Erika P. Portero
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Thomas Hankemeier
- Division
of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for
Drug Research, Leiden University, 2311 G Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Santiago Codesido
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Víctor González-Ruiz
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology
(SCAHT), Missionsstrasse
64, 4055 Bâle, Switzerland
| | - Serge Rudaz
- School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of
Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Rue Michel Servet 1, 1211 4 Geneva, Switzerland
- Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology
(SCAHT), Missionsstrasse
64, 4055 Bâle, Switzerland
| | - Rawi Ramautar
- Division
of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for
Drug Research, Leiden University, 2311 G Leiden, The Netherlands
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