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Jonika MM, Wilhoit KT, Chin M, Arekere A, Blackmon H. Drift drives the evolution of chromosome number II: The impact of range size on genome evolution in Carnivora. J Hered 2024:esae025. [PMID: 38712909 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esae025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Chromosome number is a fundamental genomic trait that is often the first recorded characteristic of a genome. Across large clades, a common pattern emerges: many or even most lineages exhibit relative stasis, while a handful of lineages or species exhibit striking variation. Despite recent developments in comparative methods, most of this heterogeneity is still poorly understood. It is essential to understand why some lineages have rapid rates of chromosome number evolution, as it can impact a variety of other traits. Previous research suggests that biased female meiotic drive may shape rates of karyotype evolution in some mammals. However, Carnivora exhibits variation that this female meiotic drive model cannot explain. We hypothesize that variation in effective population size may underlie rate variation in Carnivora. To test this hypothesis, we estimated rates of fusions and fissions while accounting for range size, which we use as a proxy for effective population size. We reason fusions and fissions are deleterious or underdominant and that only in lineages with small range sizes will these changes be able to fix due to genetic drift. In this study, we find that the rates of fusions and fissions are elevated in taxa with small range sizes relative to those with large range sizes. Based on these findings, we conclude that 1) naturally occurring structural mutations that change chromosome number are underdominant or mildly deleterious, and 2) when population sizes are small, structural rearrangements may play an important role in speciation and reduction in gene flow among populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Jonika
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University
| | | | | | - Abhimanyu Arekere
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas
| | - Heath Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Interdepartmental Program, Texas A&M University
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Sylvester T, Hoover Z, Hjelmen CE, Jonika MM, Blackmon LT, Alfieri JM, Johnston JS, Chien S, Esfandani T, Blackmon H. A reference quality genome assembly for the Jewel scarab Chrysina gloriosa. G3 (Bethesda) 2024:jkae084. [PMID: 38630623 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkae084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
The jewel scarab Chrysina gloriosa is one of the most charismatic beetles in the United States and is found from the mountains of West Texas to the Southeastern Arizona sky islands. This species is highly sought by professional and amateur collectors worldwide due to its gleaming metallic coloration. However, the impact of the large-scale collection of this beetle on its populations is unknown, and there is a limited amount of genetic information available to make informed decisions about its conservation. As a first step, we present the genome of C. gloriosa, which we reconstructed using a single female specimen sampled from our ongoing effort to document population connectivity and the demographic history of this beetle. Using a combination of long-read sequencing and Omni-C data, we reconstructed the C. gloriosa genome at a near-chromosome level. Our genome assembly consisted of 454 scaffolds spanning 642 MB, with the ten largest scaffolds capturing 98% of the genome. The scaffold N50 was 72 MB, and the BUSCO score was 95.5%. This genome assembly will be an essential tool to accelerate understanding C. gloriosa biology and help make informed decisions for the conservation of Chrysina and other species with similar distributions in this region. This genome assembly will further serve as a community resource for comparative genomic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrence Sylvester
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38111, USA
| | - Zachary Hoover
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Carl E Hjelmen
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Biology, Utah Valley University, Orem, UT 84058, USA
| | - Michelle M Jonika
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Leslie T Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - James M Alfieri
- Interdisciplinary Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - J Spencer Johnston
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Sean Chien
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Tahmineh Esfandani
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Heath Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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3
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Blackmon H, Jonika MM, Alfieri JM, Fardoun L, Demuth JP. Drift drives the evolution of chromosome number I: The impact of trait transitions on genome evolution in Coleoptera. J Hered 2024; 115:173-182. [PMID: 38181226 PMCID: PMC10936555 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esae001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Chromosomal mutations such as fusions and fissions are often thought to be deleterious, especially in heterozygotes (underdominant), and consequently are unlikely to become fixed. Yet, many models of chromosomal speciation ascribe an important role to chromosomal mutations. When the effective population size (Ne) is small, the efficacy of selection is weakened, and the likelihood of fixing underdominant mutations by genetic drift is greater. Thus, it is possible that ecological and phenotypic transitions that modulate Ne facilitate the fixation of chromosome changes, increasing the rate of karyotype evolution. We synthesize all available chromosome number data in Coleoptera and estimate the impact of traits expected to change Ne on the rate of karyotype evolution in the family Carabidae and 12 disparate clades from across Coleoptera. Our analysis indicates that in Carabidae, wingless clades have faster rates of chromosome number increase. Additionally, our analysis indicates clades exhibiting multiple traits expected to reduce Ne, including strict inbreeding, oligophagy, winglessness, and island endemism, have high rates of karyotype evolution. Our results suggest that chromosome number changes are likely fixed by genetic drift despite an initial fitness cost and that chromosomal speciation models may be important to consider in clades with very small Ne.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heath Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Interdisciplinary Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Michelle M Jonika
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - James M Alfieri
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- Interdisciplinary Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Leen Fardoun
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Jeffery P Demuth
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
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Alfieri JM, Jonika MM, Dulin JN, Blackmon H. Tempo and Mode of Genome Structure Evolution in Insects. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:336. [PMID: 36833264 PMCID: PMC9957073 DOI: 10.3390/genes14020336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The division of the genome into discrete chromosomes is a fundamental characteristic of eukaryotic life. Insect taxonomists' early adoption of cytogenetics has led to an incredible amount of data describing genome structure across insects. In this article, we synthesize data from thousands of species and use biologically realistic models to infer the tempo and mode of chromosome evolution among insect orders. Our results show that orders vary dramatically in the overall rate of chromosome number evolution (a proxy of genome structural stability) and the pattern of evolution (e.g., the balance between fusions and fissions). These findings have important implications for our understanding of likely modes of speciation and offer insight into the most informative clades for future genome sequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M. Alfieri
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Michelle M. Jonika
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Jennifer N. Dulin
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Heath Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
- Interdisciplinary Program in Genetics and Genomics, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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Pitonak M, Aceves M, Kumar PA, Dampf G, Green P, Tucker A, Dietz V, Miranda D, Letchuman S, Jonika MM, Bautista D, Blackmon H, Dulin JN. Effects of biological sex mismatch on neural progenitor cell transplantation for spinal cord injury in mice. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5380. [PMID: 36104357 PMCID: PMC9474813 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33134-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite advancement of neural progenitor cell transplantation to spinal cord injury clinical trials, there remains a lack of understanding of how biological sex of transplanted cells influences outcomes after transplantation. To address this, we transplanted GFP-expressing sex-matched, sex-mismatched, or mixed donor cells into sites of spinal cord injury in adult male and female mice. Biological sex of the donor cells does not influence graft neuron density, glial differentiation, formation of the reactive glial cell border, or graft axon outgrowth. However, male grafts in female hosts feature extensive hypervascularization accompanied by increased vascular diameter and perivascular cell density. We show greater T-cell infiltration within male-to-female grafts than other graft types. Together, these findings indicate a biological sex-specific immune response of female mice to male donor cells. Our work suggests that biological sex should be considered in the design of future clinical trials for cell transplantation in human injury. In this study, Pitonak et al. report that transplantation of neural progenitor cells derived from male donors trigger an immune rejection response following transplantation into sites of spinal cord injury in female mice.
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Pimsler ML, Hjelmen CE, Jonika MM, Sharma A, Fu S, Bala M, Sze SH, Tomberlin JK, Tarone AM. Sexual Dimorphism in Growth Rate and Gene Expression Throughout Immature Development in Wild Type Chrysomya rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Macquart. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.696638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Reliability of forensic entomology analyses to produce relevant information to a given case requires an understanding of the underlying arthropod population(s) of interest and the factors contributing to variability. Common traits for analyses are affected by a variety of genetic and environmental factors. One trait of interest in forensic investigations has been species-specific temperature-dependent growth rates. Recent work indicates sexual dimorphism may be important in the analysis of such traits and related genetic markers of age. However, studying sexual dimorphic patterns of gene expression throughout immature development in wild-type insects can be difficult due to a lack of genetic tools, and the limits of most sex-determination mechanisms. Chrysomya rufifacies, however, is a particularly tractable system to address these issues as it has a monogenic sex determination system, meaning females have only a single-sex of offspring throughout their life. Using modified breeding procedures (to ensure single-female egg clutches) and transcriptomics, we investigated sexual dimorphism in development rate and gene expression. Females develop slower than males (9 h difference from egg to eclosion respectively) even at 30°C, with an average egg-to-eclosion time of 225 h for males and 234 h for females. Given that many key genes rely on sex-specific splicing for the development and maintenance of sexually dimorphic traits, we used a transcriptomic approach to identify different expression of gene splice variants. We find that 98.4% of assembled nodes exhibited sex-specific, stage-specific, to sex-by-stage specific patterns of expression. However, the greatest signal in the expression data is differentiation by developmental stage, indicating that sexual dimorphism in gene expression during development may not be investigatively important and that markers of age may be relatively independent of sex. Subtle differences in these gene expression patterns can be detected as early as 4 h post-oviposition, and 12 of these nodes demonstrate homology with key Drosophila sex determination genes, providing clues regarding the distinct sex determination mechanism of C. rufifacies. Finally, we validated the transcriptome analyses through qPCR and have identified five genes that are developmentally informative within and between sexes.
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Ruckman SN, Jonika MM, Casola C, Blackmon H. Chromosome number evolves at equal rates in holocentric and monocentric clades. PLoS Genet 2020; 16:e1009076. [PMID: 33048946 PMCID: PMC7584213 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the fundamental role of centromeres two different types are observed across plants and animals. Monocentric chromosomes possess a single region that function as the centromere while in holocentric chromosomes centromere activity is spread across the entire chromosome. Proper segregation may fail in species with monocentric chromosomes after a fusion or fission, which may lead to chromosomes with no centromere or multiple centromeres. In contrast, species with holocentric chromosomes should still be able to safely segregate chromosomes after fusion or fission. This along with the observation of high chromosome number in some holocentric clades has led to the hypothesis that holocentricity leads to higher rates of chromosome number evolution. To test for differences in rates of chromosome number evolution between these systems, we analyzed data from 4,393 species of insects in a phylogenetic framework. We found that insect orders exhibit striking differences in rates of fissions, fusions, and polyploidy. However, across all insects we found no evidence that holocentric clades have higher rates of fissions, fusions, or polyploidy than monocentric clades. Our results suggest that holocentricity alone does not lead to higher rates of chromosome number changes. Instead, we suggest that other co-evolving traits must explain striking differences between clades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah N. Ruckman
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
| | - Michelle M. Jonika
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- Genetics Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
| | - Claudio Casola
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- Genetics Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, Texas A&M, Texas, United States of America
| | - Heath Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- Genetics Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Jonika MM, Hjelmen CE, Faris AM, McGuane AS, Tarone AM. An Evaluation of Differentially Spliced Genes as Markers of Sex for Forensic Entomology,. J Forensic Sci 2020; 65:1579-1587. [PMID: 32501598 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Blow flies (Calliphoridae) are important medically and economically and are commonly used in forensics as temporal markers in death investigations. While phenotypic traits in adult flies can be sexually dimorphic, sex identification in immatures is difficult. Consequently, little is known about how sex may result in developmental disparities among sexes even though there are indications that they may be important in some instances. Since genetic mechanisms for sex are well studied in model flies and species of agricultural and medical importance, we exploit the sex-specifically spliced genes transformer (tra) and doublesex (dsx) in the sex determination pathway to optimize a sex identification assay for immatures. Using known primer sets for tra and with a novel one for dsx, we develop PCR assays for identifying sex in four forensically relevant Calliphoridae species: Lucilia sericata (Meigen), Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann), Cochliomyia macellaria (Fabricius), and Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) and evaluated their performance. Band detection rates were found to range from 71 to 100%, call rates ranged from 90 to 100%, and no error was found when bands could be called. Such information is informative for purposes of testimony and in preparation for development studies. The developed assays will assist in further differentiating sexually dimorphic differences in development of the Calliphoridae and aid in more accurately estimating insect age when age predictive markers (size, development time, molecular expression) are sexually dimorphic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Jonika
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, 370 Olsen Blvd., College Station, TX, 77843.,Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, 525 Lubbock St., College Station, TX, 77843.,Genetics Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, 2128 TAMU, 300 Olsen Blvd., College Station, TX, 77843
| | - Carl E Hjelmen
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, 370 Olsen Blvd., College Station, TX, 77843.,Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, 3258 TAMU, 525 Lubbock St., College Station, TX, 77843
| | - Ashleigh M Faris
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, 370 Olsen Blvd., College Station, TX, 77843.,Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center, Texas A&M University, 10345 TX-44, Corpus Christi, TX, 78406
| | - Alexander S McGuane
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, 370 Olsen Blvd., College Station, TX, 77843.,Harris County Institute of Forensic Sciences, 1861 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX, 77054
| | - Aaron M Tarone
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service, Texas A&M University, 2475 TAMU, 370 Olsen Blvd., College Station, TX, 77843
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Perkins RD, Gamboa JR, Jonika MM, Lo J, Shum A, Adams RH, Blackmon H. A database of amphibian karyotypes. Chromosome Res 2019; 27:313-319. [DOI: 10.1007/s10577-019-09613-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Guard BC, Honneffer JB, Jergens AE, Jonika MM, Toresson L, Lawrence YA, Webb CB, Hill S, Lidbury JA, Steiner JM, Suchodolski JS. Longitudinal assessment of microbial dysbiosis, fecal unconjugated bile acid concentrations, and disease activity in dogs with steroid-responsive chronic inflammatory enteropathy. J Vet Intern Med 2019; 33:1295-1305. [PMID: 30957301 PMCID: PMC6524081 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.15493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Mounting evidence from human studies suggests that bile acid dysmetabolism might play a role in various human chronic gastrointestinal diseases. It is unknown whether fecal bile acid dysmetabolism occurs in dogs with chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CE). Objective To assess microbial dysbiosis, fecal unconjugated bile acids (fUBA), and disease activity in dogs with steroid‐responsive CE. Animals Twenty‐four healthy control dogs and 23 dogs with steroid‐responsive CE. Methods In this retrospective study, fUBA were measured and analyzed. Fecal microbiota were assessed using a dysbiosis index. The canine inflammatory bowel disease activity index was used to evaluate remission of clinical signs. This was a multi‐institutional study where dogs with steroid‐responsive CE were evaluated over time. Results The dysbiosis index was increased in dogs with CE (median, 2.5; range, −6.2 to 6.5) at baseline compared with healthy dogs (median, −4.5; range, −6.5 to −2.6; P = .002) but did not change in dogs with CE over time. Secondary fUBA were decreased in dogs with CE (median, 29%; range, 1%‐99%) compared with healthy dogs (median, 88%; 4%‐96%; P = .049). The percent of secondary fUBA in dogs with CE increased from baseline values (median, 28%; range, 1%‐99%) after 2‐3 months of treatment (median, 94%; range, 1%‐99%; P = 0.0183). Conclusions and Clinical Importance These findings suggest that corticosteroids regulate fecal bile acids in dogs with CE. Additionally, resolution of clinical activity index in dogs with therapeutically managed CE and bile acid dysmetabolism are likely correlated. However, subclinical disease (i.e., microbial dysbiosis) can persist in dogs with steroid‐responsive CE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake C Guard
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Julia B Honneffer
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Albert E Jergens
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | - Michelle M Jonika
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Linda Toresson
- Evidensia Specialist Animal Hospital, Helsingborg, Sweden.,Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Yuri A Lawrence
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Craig B Webb
- Clinical Sciences Department, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - Steve Hill
- Veterinary Specialty Hospital, San Diego, California
| | - Jonathan A Lidbury
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Joerg M Steiner
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
| | - Jan S Suchodolski
- Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas
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