Acute oral toxicity assessment of galbanic acid in albino rat according to OECD 425 TG

In spite of the broad biological and also anticarcinogenic effects which have been reported for galbanic acid in various studies, its toxic effects are not still well characterized. The study was accomplished to evaluate the acute oral toxicity of galbanic acid pursuant to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) TG No. 425. Female rats were received asafoetida extract and galbanic acid in distilled water by oral gavage. According to the existing information, limit test was done for aqueous extract of asafoetida and main test was done for galbanic acid. The animals were monitored for 2 weeks. Then under general anesthesia, the blood samples were obtained from the heart for biochemical and hematological assessment and the vital organs of rats were isolated for pathological evaluation. The results showed that although the Median lethal dose (LD50) of asafoetida extract was above the 2000 mg/kg body weight, the galbanic acid estimated LD50 was 310.2 mg/kg. There was no considerable change in body weight of vehicle and extract treated animals but in galbanic acid treated animals, the body weights were not normally increased. A significant rise was observed in high-density lipoprotein (HDL), (aspartate aminotransferase) AST and (alanine aminotransferase) ALT levels as well as in white blood cells (WBC), platelet and lymphocytes counts in galbanic acid group compared to vehicle and extract groups. Based on the obtained results, we suggest that although the asafoetida aqueous extract could be categorized as group 5 (LD50 > 2000 mg/kg), but galbanic acid estimated LD50 is about 310.2 mg/kg and toxicity signs also appeared in lung, liver enzymes and complete blood count (CBC) of galbanic acid treated animals.

The nephrotoxicity of Aristolochia rotunda L. in rats: Mitochondrion as a target for renal toxicity of Aristolochic acids-containing plants

In recent years, there has been a growing trend in the usage of traditional medicine and herbal treatments. However, the misconception that they are completely safe resulted in irreversible complications and damages. The present study was conducted to investigate the potential renal toxicity of a commonly used drug in Iran's traditional medicine and pharmacy, known as Zaravand Gerd or Nokhod Alvand (Aristolochia rotunda L.). In Iranian traditional medicine, Zaravand Gerd is used as a remedy for respiratory system ailments, back pain, anxiety, headache and septic wounds. Fifty-six male rats were divided into seven groups (n = 8). The first group served as the control and received normal saline, while the second to seventh groups were administered varying doses of the aqueous extract of Zaravand Gerd (0.1, 0.5, 1.25, 2.5, and 5 g/kg) for a period of three weeks. Various parameters were measured to evaluate the potential kidney damage caused by the extract, including serum creatinine and BUN levels, as well as urine protein and glucose levels, which were analyzed using an autoanalyzer. Additionally, kidney tissue samples were examined pathologically, and mitochondria from the kidney tissue were isolated to assess mitochondrial parameters. The results of this study revealed that high doses of Zaravand Gerd extract led to a significant increase in urinary glucose and protein excretion compared to the control group. Pathological examination of the isolated kidney tissues indicated that the concentrations of 2.5 and 5 g/kg of Zaravand Gerd extract resulted in kidney damage and dilation of proximal convoluted tubules. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that high doses of the extract (2.5 and 5 g/kg) caused damage to the mitochondria. Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that the administration of high doses of Zaravand Gerd extract, which are not commonly used in traditional medicine, can have toxic effects on the kidneys in rats as an animal model. These results highlight the importance of considering the potential risks associated with herbal medicines and the necessity of usage based on scientific evidence.

Toxicity of para-phenylenediamine (PPD;1, 4 diaminobenzene) on isolated human lymphocytes: The key role of intracellular calcium enhancement in PPD-induced apoptosis

Para-phenylenediamine (PPD) is a derivative of benzene used as an ingredient in dyes, a photographic developing agent, and a component of engineered polymers. The carcinogenicity of PPD, which has been documented in several studies, may be related to its toxic effects on different compartments of the immune system. The main goal of this research was to evaluate the mechanism of the toxicity of PPD on human lymphocytes by exploiting the accelerated cytotoxicity mechanism screening (ACMS) technique. Lymphocytes were isolated from the blood of healthy persons using a Ficoll-Paque PLUS standard method. Assessment of cell viability was carried out 12 h following treatment of human lymphocytes with 0.25-1 mM PPD. For determination of cellular parameters, isolated human lymphocytes were incubated with 1/2 the IC50 (0.4 mM), the IC50 (0.8 mM), and twice the IC50 (1.6 mM) for 2, 4, and 6 h. Half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) is the concentration that reduces cell viability approximately 50% following treatment. The results of this study demonstrated that PPD-associated apoptosis in human lymphocytes was mainly through the enhancement of intracellular calcium, oxidative stress, and following adverse effect on lymphocyte organelles (like mitochondria and lysosomes). Lipid peroxidation, activation of caspase-3, and stimulation of cytokines (IL₂, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and TNF-alpha) production were also observed in PPD-treated lymphocytes. Considering the results of this study, we can suggest an association between PPD carcinogenicity and its toxic effects on different compartments of the immune system.

The effect of infusion time on Echium amoenum extract -induced hepatotoxicity in vitro

Echium amoenum is an annual herb native to the northern mountains of Iran which has medicinal application. Petals of Echium amoenum (Gole-Gavzaban) is one of the most valuable medicinal plants in Iranian folk medicine. The dry petals of E. amoenum have long been used as a sedative, tonic, anxiolytic and as a treatment for sore throat, cough and inflammation. Previous studies have shown that petals of E. amoenum contain four toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids but conflicting results have been acquired in experimental studies investigating the hepatotoxicy of E. amoenum. However, the direct effect of E. amoenum on liver cells and the complete mechanisms of its possible cytotoxic effects toward these cells remain to be defined. The main aim of this study was to assay the mechanisms underlying the toxic effects of E. amoenum toward hepG2 cells. E. amoenum extract was obtained by infusion of dried petals in hot water (90 centigrade) for 15 or 30 min. Cell viability and mechanistic parameters were determined following 12 h incubation of hepG2 with E. amoenum extract that was obtained after 15 or 30 min infusion. The results indicated that E. amoenum extract exerts cytotoxic effects on hepG2 cells, probably through mitochondrial and lysosomal damage induced by glutathione depletion and oxidative stress.

Comparative Toxic Effect of Bulk Copper Oxide (CuO) and CuO Nanoparticles on Human Red Blood Cells

Destruction of red blood cell is associated with anemia and other pathological status; hence, the hemolytic effects of all chemicals and particles which come into contact with blood components must be considered. Nanomaterials and nanoparticles are potential substitutes for common material and particles, and assessment of their effect on blood components is a necessary part of their safety evaluation. High surface-to-volume ratio of nanoparticles may cause their toxic effects differ from those observed for bulk material. The aim of this study was to compare the hemolytic effects of CuO nanoparticles and bulk CuO. Red blood cells were isolated from blood of healthy subjects and hemolytic effects assayed following treatment of cells with 0.005-0.25 mM of CuO (bulk and nanoparticles) for 6 h. For assessment of other parameters, cells were incubated with 0.01, 0.05, and 0.25 mM of CuO nanoparticles and bulk CuO for 1, 2, and 3 h. Our results demonstrate that CuO nanoparticles, in particular, caused toxic hemolytic effects in concentration-dependent manner, and this effect maybe through formation of ROS, glutathione depletion, and lipid peroxidation. In conclusion, CuO nanoparticles are shown to effectively destruct human red blood cells in comparison to bulk CuO.

Evaluation of Cytotoxic Potentials of Novel Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibitor against ALL Lymphocytes and Normal Lymphocytes and Its Anticancer Effect through Mitochondrial Pathway

In the present study, we searched selective cytotoxicity and mitochondria mediated apoptosis of novel COX-2 inhibitor 2-(4-(Methylsulfonyl)phenyl)imidazo[1,2-a] pyridine-8-carboxylic acid on B-lymphocytes and their mitochondria isolated from normal subjects and acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) patients' blood. Our results showed this compound can selectively induce cellular and mitochondrial toxicity on ALL B-lymphocytes and mitochondria without any toxic effects on normal B-lymphocytes and their mitochondria. Taken together, the results of this study suggest that cancerous mitochondria are a potential target for the ALL B-lymphocytes. Selective toxicity of COX-2 inhibitor in cancerous mitochondria could be an attractive therapeutic option for the effective clinical management of therapy-resistant ALL.

Correction to: Toxicity of Copper Oxide (CuO) Nanoparticles on Human Blood Lymphocytes

The original version of this article unfortunately contained mistakes. The name Hamid Degampanah is corrected to "Hamid Dezhampanah". Affiliation 1 is corrected to University of Guilan from Guilan University.

Mitochondrial protective and antioxidant agents protect toxicity induced by depleted uranium in isolated human lymphocytes

Depleted uranium (DU) is a by-product of the enrichment procedure of natural uranium. During production and usage, uranium may be released into the environment due to failure to follow standard procedures, thus causing environmental pollution. In this study, toxicity effects of uranium (VI) and protective role of mitochondrial permeability transition pore sealing and antioxidant agents studied by isolated human lymphocytes. Human lymphocytes were exposed to different concentrations (0.1, 0.5, 1, 2 and 5 mM) of DU for 6 h and cytotoxicity was measured by trypan blue assay. The mechanistic parameters were assessed after 1, 2 and 3 h of lymphocyte treatment with 1/2 IC50_6h (0.3 mM), IC50_6h (0.8 mM) and 2 IC50_6h (1.6 mM) of DU. The reactive oxygen species (ROS), lysosomal membrane destabilization, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), lipid peroxidation, GSH and GSSG levels on human lymphocytes exposed to UA, were measured. The results indicate that toxicity of U (VI) was concentration dependent on human lymphocytes. Also, U (VI) induced ROS production, MMP reduction, lysosomal membrane destabilization and lipid peroxidation in human lymphocytes. In U (VI) treated lymphocytes, decrease in intracellular GSH and raise in extracellular GSSG levels were observed. We report that mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pore sealing and antioxidant agents, have the capacity significantly to prevents, mitochondrial toxicity. Thus, the inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction by MPT pore sealing and antioxidant agents is associated with the inhibition of DU-induced mitochondrial damages and activation of apoptosis in lymphocytes.

Selective Cytotoxicity of α-Santonin from the Persian Gulf Sponge Dysidea Avara on Pediatric ALL B-lymphocytes via Mitochondrial Targeting

Background: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is one of the most dominant malignancies among children, characterized by production of immature and dysfunctional blasts which are resistant to cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents. Therefore, research protocols are currently focusing on discovery of novel anti-cancer agents to enhance survival rates and decrease unwanted side effects. Approximately two-thirds of the planet is covered by oceans with a massive range of marine organisms of interest to scientists in pharmaceutical fields. Methods: Among marine resources, sponges are known to have beneficial effects in the treatment of numerous malignancies. One fraction of crude extracts containing α-Santonin was made from the Persian Gulf marine sponge, Dysidea avara, and investigated for anticancer effects. Results: Treatment of ALL B-lymphocytes with the Dysidea avara extract caused augmentation in ROS generation, decline in mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial swelling, release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and activation of caspase-3 only in mitochondria isolated from B-ALL lymphocytes. Conclusion: In brief, our results suggest that Dysidea avara extracts may selectively induce apoptosis in malignant pediatric lymphocytes.

Toxicity of Copper Oxide (CuO) Nanoparticles on Human Blood Lymphocytes

CuO nanoparticles (CuO-NPs) serve several important functions in human life, particularly in the fields of medicine, engineering, and technology. These nanoparticles have been utilized as catalysts, semiconductors, sensors, gaseous and solid ceramic pigments, and magnet rotatable devices. Further use for CuO-NPs has been employed in the pharmaceutical industry especially in the production of anti-microbial fabric treatments or prevention of infections caused by Escherichia coli and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Two key potential routes of exposure to CuO-NPs exist through inhalation and skin exposure. Toxicity of these nanoparticles has been reported in various studies; however, no study as of yet has investigated the complete cellular mechanisms involved in CuO-NPs toxicity on human cells. The aim of this study was to determine the cytotoxicity of CuO-NPs on human blood lymphocytes. Blood lymphocytes were obtained from healthy male subjects through the use of Ficoll polysaccharide subsequently by gradient centrifugation. The following parameters were assayed in blood lymphocytes after a 6-h incubation with different concentrations of CuO-NPs: cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, lipid peroxidation, cellular glutathione levels, and mitochondrial and lysosomal damage. Our results demonstrate that CuO-NPs, in particular, decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner and the IC50 determined was 382 μM. CuO-NP cytotoxicity was associated with significant increase at intracellular ROS level and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and lysosomal membrane leakiness. Hence, CuO-NPs are shown to effectively induce oxidative stress in addition to inflict damage on mitochondria and lysosomes in human blood lymphocytes.

Matrine Induction of ROS Mediated Apoptosis in Human ALL B-lymphocytes Via Mitochondrial Targeting

Background: Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is one of the most common malignancies among children, characterized by mass production of leukemic blasts. Chemotherapy is the first step in routine treatment, although it may evoke considerable side effects. Matrine, an alkaloid extracted from a Chinese herb, Sophora alopecuroides flavescens Ait, may be protective. Several investigations have indicated pro-apoptotic and anti-proliferative effects in a diverse range of cancer cells. Methods: Matrine’s anti-cancer effects and associated mechanisms were assessed in human ALL B-lymphocytes, focusing on parameters of inflammatory change and apoptosis. Results: Treatment of ALL B-lymphocytes with matrine augmented ROS generation, and caused mitochondrial swelling and a decline in mitochondrial membrane potential. Significant up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic protein Bax and down-regulation of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 were also noted. Conclusion: Our results suggest that matrine may be a potential anticancer agent. However, additional studies are needed to clarify involved mechanisms.

Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) Induces Apoptosis Signaling and Proteolysis in Human Lymphocytes through ROS Mediated Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Lysosomal Membrane Labialization

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) such as perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) are stable chemicals that accumulate in biological matrix. Toxicity of these compounds including immunotoxicity has been demonstrated in experimental models and wildlife. Although limited number of studies examined the effects of PFOS on human lymphocytes but so far no research has investigated the complete mechanisms of PFOS cytotoxicity toward human lymphocytes. The main goal of this investigation was to find out the mechanisms underlying the cytotoxic effect of PFOS toward human lymphocytes using accelerated cytotoxicity mechanisms screening (ACMS) technique. Human lymphocytes were isolated from blood of healthy donors using Ficoll-paquePLUS standard method. Cell viability was determined following 12 h of incubation of human lymphocytes with 100-500 µM PFOS. Our results showed that IC₅₀ concentration (163.5 µM) of PFOS reduced viability of human lymphocytes approximately 50% via increased ROS formation, lipid peroxidation, glutathione depletion and damage to cell sub organelles such as mitochondria and lysosomes. Besides, in this study we demonstrated involvement of cellular proteolysis and activation of caspase-3 in PFOS induced lymphocyte cytotoxicity. We finally concluded that at environmentally related concentration, PFOS can induce toxic effect toward human lymphocytes through induction of oxidative stress and damage to cell sub organelles.

Exposure to Antineoplastic Agents Induces Cytotoxicity in Nurse Lymphocytes: Role of Mitochondrial Damage and Oxidative Stress

Cytotoxicity and mitochondrial parameters were studied in isolated lymphocytes and their mitochondria obtained from occupationally exposed nurses through inhalation exposure to antineoplastic drugs and results were compared to those of unexposed nurses. The group of occupationally exposed nurses consisted of 50 individuals ranging in age from 30 to 35 years. The control group included 50 nurses who were not occupationally exposed to the preparation and handling of antineoplastic drugs and their anthropometric and biochemical characteristics were similar to those of the expose group. All cytotoxicity and mitochondrial parameters evaluated in exposed group were significantly increased (P < 0.05) compared to the unexposed control group. Finally, the results of our study suggest that using antioxidant, mitochondrial and lysosomal protective agents can be promising drug candidates for the hospital staff in the risk of exposure to exposure to antineoplastic drugs.

Novel Colchicine Analogues Target Mitochondrial PT Pores Using Free Tubulins and Induce ROS-Mediated Apoptosis in Cancerous Lymphocytes

B-acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) is the frequent pediatric malignity. Chemotherapy is the most practical approaches to deal with such malignancies. Microtubule-targeted agents are one of the most strategic drugs which formerly used in chemotherapy. Although colchicine-binding anti-tubulin agents exhibited promising effects in clinical trials, their exact mechanism of action is not fully understood. In this study, the effects of two newly synthesized of colchicine derivatives were investigated on cell viability of cancerous and normal lymphocytes. The viability test was carried out by MTT assay. Apoptosis vs. necrosis was measured by double staining with annexin V/PI, and caspase-3 as the ultimate mediator of apoptotic measured through the colorimetric assay. Parameters of mitochondrial damage (ROS formation, MMP (Mitochondrial Membrane Potential) decline, mitochondrial swelling, and cytochrome c release following treatment by colchicine derivatives. By focusing on mitochondrial parameters, we showed that following treatment by two newly synthesized colchicine derivatives, apoptosis is triggered in cancerous B-lymphocytes. We demonstrated these compounds could activate apoptosis in cancerous lymphocytes by augmentation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), a decline in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial swelling, release of cytochrome c, and also caspase-3 activation. Considering the obtained evidence, these inhibitors could be the new therapeutic strategies in ALL treatment.

Comparison of Kinetic Study and Protective Effects of Biological Dipeptide and Two Porphyrin Derivatives on Metal Cytotoxicity Toward Human Lymphocytes

In this research, dipeptide (his-β-alanine) and porphyrin derivatives were choosen for comparing chelating ability of toxic metals such as Al3+, Cu2+, Hg2+ and Pb2+in-vitro. The reason for choosing these two compounds is that both of them are naturally present in biological systems and comparison of chelating ability of these two compounds has not yet been done. Synthesis and comparison of kinetic study of dipeptide (his-β-alanine), meso-tetrakis(4-trimethylanilinium) porphyrin (TAPP) and Tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphyrin (TPPS4) were carried out by our team. In addition, cytotoxicity assays of metals and chelators were also performed using methylthiazoletetrazolium (MTT) test. Furthermore we investigated the protective effect of chelators against cytotoxicity, induced by differenrt toxic metals such as Al3+, Cu2+, Hg2+ and Pb2+ on human lymphocytes. EC50 values on human lymphocytes obtained after 12 h. incubation for Al3+, Cu2+ and Hg2+ were 30, 51, 3 µM respectively and for Pb2+ no cytotoxicity was observed on human lymphocyte up to 1000 µM concentration. EC50 obtained for chelators dipeptide, TPPS4 and TAPP were 948, 472 and 175 µM respectively. Pretreatment of human lymphocyte with subtoxic concentations of chelators reduced toxicity of the metals against human blood lymphocytes.

Study of the chlorpyrifos neurotoxicity using neural differentiation of adipose tissue-derived stem cells

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is the most commonly used organophosphorus insecticide which causes neurodevelopmental toxicity. So far, animals have been used as ideal models for neurotoxicity studies, but working with animals is very expensive, laborious, and ethically challenging. This has encouraged researchers to seek alternatives. During recent years, several studies have reported successful differentiation of embryonic and adult stem cells to neurons. This has provided an excellent model for neurotoxicologic studies. In this study, neural differentiation of mouse adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSCs) was used as an in vitro model for investigation of CPF neurotoxicity. For this purpose, mouse ADSCs were cultured in a medium containing knockout serum replacement and were treated with different concentrations of CPF at several stages of differentiation. Cytotoxic effect of CPF and the expression of neuron-specific genes and proteins were studied in the differentiating ADSCs. Furthermore, the activity of acetylcholinesterase was assessed by Ellman assay at different stages of differentiation. This study showed that up to 500 μM CPF did not alter viability of the undifferentiated ADSCs, whereas viability of the differentiating cells decreased with 500 μM CPF. CPF upregulated the expression of some neuron-specific genes and seemed to decrease the number of β-tubulin III and MAP2 proteins-expressing cells. There was no detectable acetylcholine esterase activity in differentiated ADSCs. In summary, it was shown that CPF treatment can decrease the viability of ADSC-derived neurons and dysregulate the expression of some neuronal markers through acetylcholinesterase-independent mechanisms. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 31: 1510-1519, 2016.