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Georgieva D, Wang N, Taglialatela A, Jerabek S, Reczek CR, Lim PX, Sung J, Du Q, Horiguchi M, Jasin M, Ciccia A, Baer R, Egli D. BRCA1 and 53BP1 regulate reprogramming efficiency by mediating DNA repair pathway choice at replication-associated double-strand breaks. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114006. [PMID: 38554279 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Reprogramming to pluripotency is associated with DNA damage and requires the functions of the BRCA1 tumor suppressor. Here, we leverage separation-of-function mutations in BRCA1/2 as well as the physical and/or genetic interactions between BRCA1 and its associated repair proteins to ascertain the relevance of homology-directed repair (HDR), stalled fork protection (SFP), and replication gap suppression (RGS) in somatic cell reprogramming. Surprisingly, loss of SFP and RGS is inconsequential for the transition to pluripotency. In contrast, cells deficient in HDR, but proficient in SFP and RGS, reprogram with reduced efficiency. Conversely, the restoration of HDR function through inactivation of 53bp1 rescues reprogramming in Brca1-deficient cells, and 53bp1 loss leads to elevated HDR and enhanced reprogramming in mouse and human cells. These results demonstrate that somatic cell reprogramming is especially dependent on repair of replication-associated double-strand breaks (DSBs) by the HDR activity of BRCA1 and BRCA2 and can be improved in the absence of 53BP1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Georgieva
- Department of Pediatrics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Columbia University Stem Cell Initiative, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Ning Wang
- Department of Pediatrics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Columbia University Stem Cell Initiative, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Angelo Taglialatela
- Columbia University Stem Cell Initiative, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Genetics and Development, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Stepan Jerabek
- Department of Pediatrics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Columbia University Stem Cell Initiative, New York, NY 10032, USA; Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo namesti 542/2, 160 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
| | - Colleen R Reczek
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Pei Xin Lim
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Julie Sung
- Department of Pediatrics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Qian Du
- Department of Pediatrics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Michiko Horiguchi
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Maria Jasin
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Alberto Ciccia
- Columbia University Stem Cell Initiative, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Genetics and Development, Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Richard Baer
- Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Dieter Egli
- Department of Pediatrics and Naomi Berrie Diabetes Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Columbia University Stem Cell Initiative, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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Lim PX, Zaman M, Feng W, Jasin M. BRCA2 promotes genomic integrity and therapy resistance primarily through its role in homology-directed repair. Mol Cell 2024; 84:447-462.e10. [PMID: 38244544 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2023.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024]
Abstract
Tumor suppressor BRCA2 functions in homology-directed repair (HDR), the protection of stalled replication forks, and the suppression of replicative gaps, but their relative contributions to genome integrity and chemotherapy response are under scrutiny. Here, we report that mouse and human cells require a RAD51 filament stabilization motif in BRCA2 for fork protection and gap suppression but not HDR. In mice, the loss of fork protection/gap suppression does not compromise genome stability or shorten tumor latency. By contrast, HDR deficiency increases spontaneous and replication stress-induced chromosome aberrations and tumor predisposition. Unlike with HDR, fork protection/gap suppression defects are also observed in Brca2 heterozygous cells, likely due to reduced RAD51 stabilization at stalled forks/gaps. Gaps arise from PRIMPOL activity, which is associated with 5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine sensitivity due to the formation of SMUG1-generated abasic sites and is exacerbated by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibition. However, HDR proficiency has the major role in mitigating sensitivity to chemotherapeutics, including PARP inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Xin Lim
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Mahdia Zaman
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Weiran Feng
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Maria Jasin
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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Lim PX, Zaman M, Jasin M. BRCA2 promotes genomic integrity and therapy resistance primarily through its role in homology-directed repair. bioRxiv 2023:2023.04.11.536470. [PMID: 37090587 PMCID: PMC10120702 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.11.536470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Highlights Gap suppression requires BRCA2 C-terminal RAD51 binding in mouse and human cells Brca2 heterozygosity in mice results in fork protection and gap suppression defects Gap suppression mitigates sensitivity to hmdU, but only when HDR is unperturbedHDR deficiency is the primary driver of chemotherapeutic sensitivity. eTOC blurb Lim et al . report that gap suppression as well as fork protection require BRCA2 stabilization of RAD51 filaments in human and mouse cells but have minimal impact on genome integrity, oncogenesis, and drug resistance. BRCA2 suppression of PRIMPOL-mediated replication gaps confers resistance to the nucleotide hmdU, incorporation of which leads to cytotoxic abasic sites.This effect is diminished when HDR is abrogated. Summary Tumor suppressor BRCA2 functions in homology-directed repair (HDR), protection of stalled replication forks, and suppression of replicative gaps. The relative contributions of these pathways to genome integrity and chemotherapy response are under scrutiny. Here, we report that mouse and human cells require a RAD51 filament stabilization motif in BRCA2 for both fork protection and gap suppression, but not HDR. Loss of fork protection and gap suppression do not compromise genome instability or shorten tumor latency in mice or cause replication stress in human mammary cells. By contrast, HDR deficiency increases spontaneous and replication stress-induced chromosome aberrations and tumor predisposition. Unlike with HDR, fork protection and gap suppression defects are also observed in Brca2 heterozygous mouse cells, likely due to reduced RAD51 stabilization at stalled forks and gaps. Gaps arise from PRIMPOL activity, which is associated with sensitivity to 5-hydroxymethyl-2’-deoxyuridine due to the formation of abasic sites by SMUG1 glycosylase and is exacerbated by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibition. However, HDR deficiency ultimately modulates sensitivity to chemotherapeutics, including PARP inhibitors.
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Feng W, Cao Z, Lim PX, Zhao H, Luo H, Mao N, Lee YS, Rivera AA, Choi D, Wu C, Han T, Romero R, de Stanchina E, Carver BS, Wang Q, Jasin M, Sawyers CL. Rapid interrogation of cancer cell of origin through CRISPR editing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2110344118. [PMID: 34353917 PMCID: PMC8364185 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2110344118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing complexity of different cell types revealed by single-cell analysis of tissues presents challenges in efficiently elucidating their functions. Here we show, using prostate as a model tissue, that primary organoids and freshly isolated epithelial cells can be CRISPR edited ex vivo using Cas9-sgRNA (guide RNA) ribotnucleoprotein complex technology, then orthotopically transferred in vivo into immunocompetent or immunodeficient mice to generate cancer models with phenotypes resembling those seen in traditional genetically engineered mouse models. Large intrachromosomal (∼2 Mb) or multigenic deletions can be engineered efficiently without the need for selection, including in isolated subpopulations to address cell-of-origin questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiran Feng
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Zhen Cao
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021
| | - Pei Xin Lim
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Huiyong Zhao
- Antitumor Assessment Core Facility, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Hanzhi Luo
- Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Ninghui Mao
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Young Sun Lee
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Aura Agudelo Rivera
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Danielle Choi
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Chao Wu
- Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Teng Han
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Rodrigo Romero
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Elisa de Stanchina
- Antitumor Assessment Core Facility, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Brett S Carver
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Division of Urology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Qiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministry of Education/National Health Commission/Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Maria Jasin
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Charles L Sawyers
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065;
- HHMI, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
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Chen CC, Feng W, Lim PX, Kass EM, Jasin M. Homology-Directed Repair and the Role of BRCA1, BRCA2, and Related Proteins in Genome Integrity and Cancer. Annu Rev Cancer Biol 2018; 2:313-336. [PMID: 30345412 PMCID: PMC6193498 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cancerbio-030617-050502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Germ-line and somatic mutations in genes that promote homology-directed repair (HDR), especially BRCA1 and BRCA2, are frequently observed in several cancers, in particular, breast and ovary but also prostate and other cancers. HDR is critical for the error-free repair of DNA double-strand breaks and other lesions, and HDR factors also protect stalled replication forks. As a result, loss of BRCA1 or BRCA2 poses significant risks to genome integrity, leading not only to cancer predisposition but also to sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents, affecting therapeutic approaches. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of BRCA1 and BRCA2, including how they genetically interact with other repair factors, how they protect stalled replication forks, how they affect the response to aldehydes, and how loss of their functions links to mutation signatures. Importantly, given the recent advances with poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi) for the treatment of HDR-deficient tumors, we discuss mechanisms by which BRCA-deficient tumors acquire resistance to PARPi and other agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Chin Chen
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065
| | - Weiran Feng
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Pei Xin Lim
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Elizabeth M Kass
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
| | - Maria Jasin
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr. Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065
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Lim PX, Sutherland J, Noonan R, Dananberg A, Holloman W, Smogorzewska A, Jasin M. Abstract A27: Assessing somatic tumor-associated RAD51 mutations and screening for novel dominant-interfering RAD51 proteins. Mol Cancer Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1158/1557-3125.dnarepair16-a27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The responsiveness of cancer cells to chemotherapy and targeted treatment, as well as the development of resistance, is determined by the state of DNA damage response pathways. Homology-directed repair (HDR) is crucial for error-free repair of DNA double-strand breaks that arise during replication stress or are induced by exogenous genotoxins. Therefore, HDR efficacy status in cancer cells could potentially be utilized as an indicator to predict tumor responsiveness to standard chemotherapies and to poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARP) inhibitors. We are interested in understanding the influence of different levels of functional activity of the HDR pathway on treatment responses.
To this end, we have investigated the functional consequence of RAD51 point mutations identified in tumors. RAD51 is an effector of the key tumor suppressor BRCA2 and contributes to genome integrity in actively dividing cells. RAD51 mutations are identified from Memorial Sloan Kettering clinical sequencing cohort (MSK-IMPACT), the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC) and the International Fanconi Anemia Registry (IFAR). To understand the implications of these altered residues on RAD51 function in HDR, we tested repair efficiency using a previously established DR-GFP reporter assay in mammalian cells. Of eighteen novel RAD51 mutants examined, ten displayed decreased HDR efficiency, three had wild-type levels of HDR, and five had increased HDR levels. To test whether the HDR-deficient RAD51 mutants lead to sensitivity to genotoxins, we assayed the survival of corn smut U. maydis that expressed these RAD51 mutants after treatment with DNA damaging agents ultraviolet light, diepoxybutane, or methylmethane sulfonate. All ten HDR-defective mutants were found to be sensitive to one or more genotoxins. In addition, six were found to promote sensitivity to DNA damaging agents when they were expressed in wild-type cells—i.e., a dominant negative phenotype. Interestingly, these dominant negative mutants confer selective sensitivity to specific DNA damaging agent(s). The underlying mechanism is still under investigation; nevertheless, these mutations can be used as biomarkers for HDR efficiency and to identify novel interactions of RAD51. The identification of these somatic tumor-associated RAD51 mutants warrants further testing for sensitivity towards chemotherapy drugs such as PARP inhibitors and gemcitabine. Furthermore, a random mutagenesis screening is in progress to identify more novel dominant negative RAD51 mutations. The functional analysis of RAD51 is critical as readouts for HDR efficiency, which impacts personalized chemotherapeutic choices. The result of this study will hopefully expand the benefits of using PARP inhibitors not just on BRCA1/2- and RAD51 paralog-deficient tumors but also on tumors with RAD51 mutations.
Citation Format: Pei Xin Lim, Jeanette Sutherland, Raymond Noonan, Alexandra Dananberg, William Holloman, Agata Smogorzewska, Maria Jasin. Assessing somatic tumor-associated RAD51 mutations and screening for novel dominant-interfering RAD51 proteins [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Special Conference on DNA Repair: Tumor Development and Therapeutic Response; 2016 Nov 2-5; Montreal, QC, Canada. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Mol Cancer Res 2017;15(4_Suppl):Abstract nr A27.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Xin Lim
- 1Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY,
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Maria Jasin
- 1Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY,
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Kass EM, Lim PX, Helgadottir HR, Moynahan ME, Jasin M. Robust homology-directed repair within mouse mammary tissue is not specifically affected by Brca2 mutation. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13241. [PMID: 27779185 PMCID: PMC5093336 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland undergoes significant proliferative stages after birth, but little is known about how the developmental changes impact DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair. Mutations in multiple genes involved in homology-directed repair (HDR), considered a particularly accurate pathway for repairing DSBs, are linked to breast cancer susceptibility, including BRCA2. Using reporter mice that express an inducible endonuclease, we find that HDR is particularly robust in mammary tissue during puberty and pregnancy, accounting for 34-40% of detected repair events, more than in other tissues examined. Brca2 hypomorphic mutation leads to HDR defects in mammary epithelium during puberty and pregnancy, including in different epithelial lineages. Notably, a similar dependence on Brca2 is observed in other proliferative tissues, including small intestine epithelium. Our results suggest that the greater reliance on HDR in the proliferating mammary gland, rather than a specific dependence on BRCA2, may increase its susceptibility to tumorigenesis incurred by BRCA2 mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Kass
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Pei Xin Lim
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Hildur R Helgadottir
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Mary Ellen Moynahan
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
| | - Maria Jasin
- Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, New York 10065, USA
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Lim PX, Patel DR, Poisson KE, Basuita M, Tsai C, Lyndaker AM, Hwang BJ, Lu AL, Weiss RS. Genome Protection by the 9-1-1 Complex Subunit HUS1 Requires Clamp Formation, DNA Contacts, and ATR Signaling-independent Effector Functions. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:14826-40. [PMID: 25911100 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.630640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The RAD9A-HUS1-RAD1 (9-1-1) complex is a heterotrimeric clamp that promotes checkpoint signaling and repair at DNA damage sites. In this study, we elucidated HUS1 functional residues that drive clamp assembly, DNA interactions, and downstream effector functions. First, we mapped a HUS1-RAD9A interface residue that was critical for 9-1-1 assembly and DNA loading. Next, we identified multiple positively charged residues in the inner ring of HUS1 that were crucial for genotoxin-induced 9-1-1 chromatin localization and ATR signaling. Finally, we found two hydrophobic pockets on the HUS1 outer surface that were important for cell survival after DNA damage. Interestingly, these pockets were not required for 9-1-1 chromatin localization or ATR-mediated CHK1 activation but were necessary for interactions between HUS1 and its binding partner MYH, suggesting that they serve as interaction domains for the recruitment and coordination of downstream effectors at damage sites. Together, these results indicate that, once properly loaded onto damaged DNA, the 9-1-1 complex executes multiple, separable functions that promote genome maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Xin Lim
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Darshil R Patel
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Kelsey E Poisson
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Manpreet Basuita
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Charlton Tsai
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Amy M Lyndaker
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Bor-Jang Hwang
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - A-Lien Lu
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21201
| | - Robert S Weiss
- From the Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
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