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Brodie S, Pozo Buil M, Welch H, Bograd SJ, Hazen EL, Santora JA, Seary R, Schroeder ID, Jacox MG. Ecological forecasts for marine resource management during climate extremes. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7701. [PMID: 38052808 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43188-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Forecasting weather has become commonplace, but as society faces novel and uncertain environmental conditions there is a critical need to forecast ecology. Forewarning of ecosystem conditions during climate extremes can support proactive decision-making, yet applications of ecological forecasts are still limited. We showcase the capacity for existing marine management tools to transition to a forecasting configuration and provide skilful ecological forecasts up to 12 months in advance. The management tools use ocean temperature anomalies to help mitigate whale entanglements and sea turtle bycatch, and we show that forecasts can forewarn of human-wildlife interactions caused by unprecedented climate extremes. We further show that regionally downscaled forecasts are not a necessity for ecological forecasting and can be less skilful than global forecasts if they have fewer ensemble members. Our results highlight capacity for ecological forecasts to be explored for regions without the infrastructure or capacity to regionally downscale, ultimately helping to improve marine resource management and climate adaptation globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Brodie
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA.
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA.
- Environment, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Mercedes Pozo Buil
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
| | - Heather Welch
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
| | - Steven J Bograd
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
| | - Elliott L Hazen
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
| | - Jarrod A Santora
- Fisheries Ecology Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
- Department of Applied Math, University of California, 1156, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Rachel Seary
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
- Fisheries Ecology Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Isaac D Schroeder
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
| | - Michael G Jacox
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Monterey, CA, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Monterey, CA, USA
- Physical Sciences Laboratory, Earth System Research Laboratories, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder, CO, USA
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Fennie HW, Seary R, Muhling BA, Bograd SJ, Brodie S, Cimino MA, Hazen EL, Jacox MG, McHuron EA, Melin S, Santora JA, Suca JJ, Thayer JA, Thompson AR, Warzybok P, Tommasi D. An anchovy ecosystem indicator of marine predator foraging and reproduction. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20222326. [PMID: 36750186 PMCID: PMC9904941 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.2326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Forage fishes are key energy conduits that transfer primary and secondary productivity to higher trophic levels. As novel environmental conditions caused by climate change alter ecosystems and predator-prey dynamics, there is a critical need to understand how forage fish control bottom-up forcing of food web dynamics. In the northeast Pacific, northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) is an important forage species with high interannual variability in population size that subsequently impacts the foraging and reproductive ecology of marine predators. Anchovy habitat suitability from a species distribution model (SDM) was assessed as an indicator of the diet, distribution and reproduction of four predator species. Across 22 years (1998-2019), this anchovy ecosystem indicator (AEI) was significantly positively correlated with diet composition of all species and the distribution of common murres (Uria aalge), Brandt's cormorants (Phalacrocorax penicillatus) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), but not rhinoceros auklets (Cerorhinca monocerata). The capacity for the AEI to explain variability in predator reproduction varied by species but was strongest with cormorants and sea lions. The AEI demonstrates the utility of forage SDMs in creating ecosystem indicators to guide ecosystem-based management.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. William Fennie
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Fisheries Resources Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration, 8901 La Jolla Shores Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037-1508, USA
| | - Rachel Seary
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
| | - Barbara A. Muhling
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Fisheries Resources Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration, 8901 La Jolla Shores Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037-1508, USA
| | - Steven J. Bograd
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
| | - Stephanie Brodie
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
| | - Megan A. Cimino
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
| | - Elliott L. Hazen
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
| | - Michael G. Jacox
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
- Physical Sciences Division, Earth System Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - Elizabeth A. McHuron
- Cooperative Institute for Climate, Ocean and Ecosystem Studies, University of Washington, 3737 Brooklyn Avenue NE, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - Sharon Melin
- California Current Ecosystems Program, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Mammal Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115, USA
| | - Jarrod A. Santora
- Fisheries Ecology Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 110 McAllister Way, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA
- Department of Applied Math, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Justin J. Suca
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 99 Pacific Street, Suite 255A, Monterey, CA 93940-7200, USA
| | - Julie A. Thayer
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Farallon Institute for Advanced Ecosystem Research, 101 H Street, Suite Q, Petaluma, CA 94952, USA
| | - Andrew R. Thompson
- Fisheries Resources Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration, 8901 La Jolla Shores Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037-1508, USA
| | - Pete Warzybok
- Point Blue Conservation Science, 3820 Cypress Drive Suite 11, Petaluma, CA 94954, USA
| | - Desiree Tommasi
- Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California-Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
- Fisheries Resources Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administration, 8901 La Jolla Shores Drive, La Jolla, CA 92037-1508, USA
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Brodie S, Smith JA, Muhling BA, Barnett LAK, Carroll G, Fiedler P, Bograd SJ, Hazen EL, Jacox MG, Andrews KS, Barnes CL, Crozier LG, Fiechter J, Fredston A, Haltuch MA, Harvey CJ, Holmes E, Karp MA, Liu OR, Malick MJ, Pozo Buil M, Richerson K, Rooper CN, Samhouri J, Seary R, Selden RL, Thompson AR, Tommasi D, Ward EJ, Kaplan IC. Recommendations for quantifying and reducing uncertainty in climate projections of species distributions. Glob Chang Biol 2022; 28:6586-6601. [PMID: 35978484 PMCID: PMC9805044 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Projecting the future distributions of commercially and ecologically important species has become a critical approach for ecosystem managers to strategically anticipate change, but large uncertainties in projections limit climate adaptation planning. Although distribution projections are primarily used to understand the scope of potential change-rather than accurately predict specific outcomes-it is nonetheless essential to understand where and why projections can give implausible results and to identify which processes contribute to uncertainty. Here, we use a series of simulated species distributions, an ensemble of 252 species distribution models, and an ensemble of three regional ocean climate projections, to isolate the influences of uncertainty from earth system model spread and from ecological modeling. The simulations encompass marine species with different functional traits and ecological preferences to more broadly address resource manager and fishery stakeholder needs, and provide a simulated true state with which to evaluate projections. We present our results relative to the degree of environmental extrapolation from historical conditions, which helps facilitate interpretation by ecological modelers working in diverse systems. We found uncertainty associated with species distribution models can exceed uncertainty generated from diverging earth system models (up to 70% of total uncertainty by 2100), and that this result was consistent across species traits. Species distribution model uncertainty increased through time and was primarily related to the degree to which models extrapolated into novel environmental conditions but moderated by how well models captured the underlying dynamics driving species distributions. The predictive power of simulated species distribution models remained relatively high in the first 30 years of projections, in alignment with the time period in which stakeholders make strategic decisions based on climate information. By understanding sources of uncertainty, and how they change at different forecast horizons, we provide recommendations for projecting species distribution models under global climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Brodie
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationMontereyCaliforniaUSA
| | - James A. Smith
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Barbara A. Muhling
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Lewis A. K. Barnett
- Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | | | - Paul Fiedler
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Steven J. Bograd
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationMontereyCaliforniaUSA
| | - Elliott L. Hazen
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationMontereyCaliforniaUSA
| | - Michael G. Jacox
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Physical Sciences Laboratory, Earth System Research LaboratoriesNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationBoulderColoradoUSA
| | - Kelly S. Andrews
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Cheryl L. Barnes
- Cooperative Institute for Climate, Ocean, and Ecosystem StudiesUniversity of WashingtonSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Lisa G. Crozier
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Jerome Fiechter
- Ocean Sciences DepartmentUniversity of California Santa CruzSanta CruzCaliforniaUSA
| | - Alexa Fredston
- Ocean Sciences DepartmentUniversity of California Santa CruzSanta CruzCaliforniaUSA
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural ResourcesRutgers UniversityNew BrunswickNew JerseyUSA
| | - Melissa A. Haltuch
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Chris J. Harvey
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Elizabeth Holmes
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Melissa A. Karp
- ECS Tech, in support of, NOAA Fisheries Office of Science and TechnologySilver SpringMarylandUSA
| | - Owen R. Liu
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Michael J. Malick
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Mercedes Pozo Buil
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationMontereyCaliforniaUSA
| | - Kate Richerson
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | | | - Jameal Samhouri
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Rachel Seary
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Environmental Research Division, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationMontereyCaliforniaUSA
| | - Rebecca L. Selden
- Department of Biological SciencesWellesley CollegeWellesleyMassachusettsUSA
| | - Andrew R. Thompson
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Desiree Tommasi
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of California Santa CruzMontereyCaliforniaUSA
- Southwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSan DiegoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Eric J. Ward
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
| | - Isaac C. Kaplan
- Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries ServiceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationSeattleWashingtonUSA
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Seary R, Spencer T, Bithell M, McOwen C, Ota Y. Defining mangrove-fisheries: A typology from the Perancak Estuary, Bali, Indonesia. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249173. [PMID: 33882056 PMCID: PMC8059815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This study develops a definition of what mangrove-fisheries can encompass, incorporating a broad range of their possible characteristics. A detailed case study was conducted to develop a typology of mangrove-fishing in the Perancak Estuary, Bali, Indonesia, using interview surveys to investigate the fishing activities associated with mangroves. This case study demonstrated the complexity that a mangrove-fishery can entail, where fishing is connected to the mangrove forest by fishers of multiple sectors, functions, locations and temporal scales. Through a comparison with other mangrove-fishing communities in Bali, it also highlighted that mangrove-fisheries are variable even when in close proximity. With particular reference to this case study, a framework was developed as a flexible tool for identifying the multiple dimensions of a mangrove-fishery in a local context. Following this framework should encourage researchers and managers to look outside of the groups of fishers traditionally expected to benefit from mangrove fishing. This will enable the development of a broader definition of mangrove-fisheries in a site specific way. Identifying the full scope of fishers that contribute to or benefit from a mangrove-fishery is the first step towards building management measures that reflect the interests of groups of fishers that may otherwise remain under-represented. This is in line with international efforts for sustainability, especially in promoting small-scale fishers’ access to sustainable resources under the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Seary
- Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Tom Spencer
- Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mike Bithell
- Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Chris McOwen
- UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Yoshitaka Ota
- School of Marine & Environmental Affairs, College of The Environment, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
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Cullen-Unsworth LC, Jones BL, Seary R, Newman R, Unsworth RKF. Reasons for seagrass optimism: Local ecological knowledge confirms presence of dugongs. Mar Pollut Bull 2018; 134:118-122. [PMID: 29137813 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Dugongs (Dugong dugon) depend on seagrass meadows for food. As such seagrass and dugong conservation should go hand in hand. Assessing dugong populations is notoriously challenging. In the most resource dependent communities Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) is generally high and can provide an alternative to the use of expensive ecological surveys to understand dugong populations and support associated resource management decisions. Residents of the Wakatobi National Park (WNP), SE Sulawesi, Indonesia are highly dependent on marine resources for livelihoods and correspondingly LEK is high. Here LEK documents the presence of D. dugon in the WNP and infers changes in population size. Interviews with local residents in 2012-2013 revealed 99 sightings of dugongs since 1942, 48 of which occurred between 2002 and 2012, with 79.82% of respondents having seen a dugong. Declines in the frequency of sightings within the lifetime of several respondents were reported, respondents speculating that populations are reduced. This information can guide further cooperative research and conservation efforts for the protection of a vulnerable species and the seagrass habitat on which it depends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leanne C Cullen-Unsworth
- Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, 33 Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3BA, UK; Project Seagrass, 33 Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3BA, UK.
| | - Benjamin L Jones
- Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, 33 Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3BA, UK; Project Seagrass, 33 Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3BA, UK
| | - Rachel Seary
- Cambridge Coastal Research Unit, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Downing Pl, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK
| | - Rhian Newman
- School of Applied Sciences, University of South Wales, Pontypridd CF37 4BE, UK
| | - Richard K F Unsworth
- Project Seagrass, 33 Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3BA, UK; Seagrass Ecosystem Research Group, College of Science, Wallace Building, Swansea University, SA2 8PP, UK
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