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Akyea-Bobi NE, Akorli J, Opoku M, Akporh SS, Amlalo GK, Osei JHN, Frempong KK, Pi-Bansa S, Boakye HA, Abudu M, Akorli EA, Acquah-Baidoo D, Pwalia R, Bonney JHK, Quansah R, Dadzie SK. Entomological risk assessment for transmission of arboviral diseases by Aedes mosquitoes in a domestic and forest site in Accra, Ghana. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0295390. [PMID: 38060554 PMCID: PMC10703219 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Dengue, Zika and chikungunya are Aedes-borne viral diseases that have become great global health concerns in the past years. Several countries in Africa have reported outbreaks of these diseases and despite Ghana sharing borders with some of these countries, such outbreaks are yet to be detected. Viral RNA and antibodies against dengue serotype-2 have recently been reported among individuals in some localities in the regional capital of Ghana. This is an indication of a possible silent transmission ongoing in the population. This study, therefore, investigated the entomological transmission risk of dengue, Zika and chikungunya viruses in a forest and domestic population in the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. All stages of the Aedes mosquito (egg, larvae, pupae and adults) were collected around homes and in the forest area for estimation of risk indices. All eggs were hatched and reared to larvae or adults for morphological identification together with larvae and adults collected from the field. The forest population had higher species richness with 7 Aedes species. The predominant species of Aedes mosquitoes identified from both sites was Aedes aegypti (98%). Aedes albopictus, an important arbovirus vector, was identified only in the peri-domestic population at a prevalence of 1.5%, significantly higher than previously reported. All risk indices were above the WHO threshold except the House Index for the domestic site which was moderate (19.8). The forest population recorded higher Positive Ovitrap (34.2% vs 26.6%) and Container (67.9% vs 36.8%) Indices than the peri-domestic population. Although none of the mosquito pools showed the presence of dengue, chikungunya or Zika viruses, all entomological risk indicators showed that both sites had a high potential arboviral disease transmission risk should any of these viruses be introduced. Continuous surveillance is recommended in these and other sites in the Metropolis to properly map transmission risk areas to inform outbreak preparedness strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nukunu Etornam Akyea-Bobi
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Jewelna Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Millicent Opoku
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Samuel Sowah Akporh
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Godwin Kwame Amlalo
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Joseph Harold Nyarko Osei
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Kwadwo Kyereme Frempong
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Sellase Pi-Bansa
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Helena Anokyewaa Boakye
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Mufeez Abudu
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Esinam Abla Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Dominic Acquah-Baidoo
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Rebecca Pwalia
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | | | - Reginald Quansah
- Department of Biological, Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
| | - Samuel Kweku Dadzie
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra
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Kwame Amlalo G, Akorli J, Etornam Akyea-Bobi N, Sowa Akporh S, Aqua-Baidoo D, Opoku M, Frempong K, Pi-Bansa S, Boakye HA, Joannides J, Nyarko Osei JH, Pwalia R, Abla Akorli E, Manu A, Dadzie SK. Evidence of High Frequencies of Insecticide Resistance Mutations in Aedes aegypti (Culicidae) Mosquitoes in Urban Accra, Ghana: Implications for Insecticide-based Vector Control of Aedes-borne Arboviral Diseases. J Med Entomol 2022; 59:2090-2101. [PMID: 36066455 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjac120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The most widespread arboviral diseases such as Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika are transmitted mainly by Aedes mosquitoes. Due to the lack of effective therapeutics for most of these diseases, vector control remains the most effective preventative and control measure. This study investigated and compared the species composition, insecticide susceptibility, and resistance mechanisms in Aedes mosquito populations from a forest reserve converted to an eco-park and a peri-domestic sites in urban Accra, Ghana. Immature Aedes were sampled from the study sites, raised to adults, and exposed to deltamethrin, permethrin, DDT, fenitrothion, bendiocarb, permethrin + PBO, and deltamethrin + PBO using WHO tube assays. Melting curve analyses were performed for F1536C, V1016I, and V410L genetic mutations in surviving and dead mosquitoes following exposure to deltamethrin and permethrin. Microplate assay was used to access enzyme activity levels in adult mosquitoes from both populations. Aedes aegypti was found to be the dominant species from both study populations. The susceptibility test results revealed a high frequency of resistance to all the insecticides except fenitrothion. F1534C mutations were observed in 100% and 97% of mosquitoes from the peri-domestic and forest population, respectively but were associated with pyrethroid resistance only in the forest population (P < 0.0001). For the first time in Aedes mosquitoes in Ghana, we report the existence V410L mutations, mostly under selection only in the forest population (HWE P < 0.0001) and conclude that Aedes vectors in urban Accra have developed resistance to many commonly used insecticides. This information is important for the formulation of vector control strategies for Aedes control in Ghana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godwin Kwame Amlalo
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Epidemiology and Disease Control, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 13, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Jewelna Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Nukunu Etornam Akyea-Bobi
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel Sowa Akporh
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Dominic Aqua-Baidoo
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Millicent Opoku
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Kwadwo Frempong
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Sellase Pi-Bansa
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Helena A Boakye
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joannitta Joannides
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joseph Harold Nyarko Osei
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Rebecca Pwalia
- Vestergaard NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Esinam Abla Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Alexander Manu
- Department of Epidemiology and Disease Control, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 13, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel K Dadzie
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
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Akorli J, Akorli EA, Tetteh SNA, Amlalo GK, Opoku M, Pwalia R, Adimazoya M, Atibilla D, Pi-Bansa S, Chabi J, Dadzie SK. Microsporidia MB is found predominantly associated with Anopheles gambiae s.s and Anopheles coluzzii in Ghana. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18658. [PMID: 34545153 PMCID: PMC8452686 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-98268-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A vertically transmitted microsporidian, Microsporidia MB, with the ability to disrupt Plasmodium development was reported in Anopheles arabiensis from Kenya, East Africa. To demonstrate its range of incidence, archived DNA samples from 7575 Anopheles mosquitoes collected from Ghana were screened. MB prevalence was observed at 1.8%. An. gambiae s.s constituted 87% of positive mosquitoes while the remaining were from An. coluzzii. Both sibling species had similar positivity rates (24% and 19%; p = 0.42) despite the significantly higher number of An. gambiae s.s analysed (An. gambiae s.s = 487; An. coluzzii = 94; p = 0.0005). The microsporidian was also more prevalent in emerged adults from field-collected larvae than field-caught adults (p < 0.0001) suggestive of an efficient vertical transmission and/or horizontal transfer among larvae. This is the first report of Microsporidia MB in Anopheles mosquitoes in West Africa. It indicates possible widespread among malaria vector species and warrants investigations into the symbiont’s diversity across sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jewelna Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
| | - Esinam Abla Akorli
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Seraphim Naa Afoley Tetteh
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Godwin Kwame Amlalo
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Millicent Opoku
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Rebecca Pwalia
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Michelle Adimazoya
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Dorcas Atibilla
- Entomology Unit, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Kintampo Health Research Centre, P.O. Box 200, Kintampo, Ghana
| | - Sellase Pi-Bansa
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joseph Chabi
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel Kweku Dadzie
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 581, Legon, Accra, Ghana
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Joannides J, Dzodzomenyo M, Azerigyik F, Agbosu EE, Pratt D, Nyarko Osei JH, Pwalia R, Amlalo GK, Appawu M, Takashi H, Iwanaga S, Buchwald A, Rochford R, Boakye D, Koram K, Bonney K, Dadzie S. Species composition and risk of transmission of some Aedes-borne arboviruses in some sites in Northern Ghana. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0234675. [PMID: 34061882 PMCID: PMC8168856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0234675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aedes-borne viral diseases mainly Yellow Fever (YF), Dengue (DEN), Zika (ZIK) and Chikungunya (CHK) have contributed to many deaths’ in the world especially in Africa. There have been major outbreaks of these diseases in West Africa. Although, YF outbreaks have occurred in Ghana over the years, no outbreak of DEN, ZIK and CHK has been recorded. However, the risk of outbreak is high due to its proximity to West African countries where outbreaks have been recently been recorded. This study surveyed the mosquito fauna to assess the risk of transmission of Yellow fever (YFV), Dengue (DENV), Chikungunya (CHKV) and Zika (ZIKV) viruses in Larabanga and Mole Game Reserve areas in Northern Ghana. The immature and adult stages of Aedes mosquitoes were collected from Larabanga and Mole Game Reserve area. There was a significant (P>0.001) number of mosquitoes collected during the rainy season than the dry season. A total of 1,930 Aedes mosquitoes were collected during the rainy season and morphologically identified. Of these, 1,915 (99.22%) were Aedes aegypti and 15 (0.22%) were Aedes vittatus. During the dry season, 27 Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were collected. A total of 415 Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were molecularly identified to subspecies level of which Ae. (Ae) aegypti aegypti was the predominant subspecies. Both Ae. aegypti aegypti and Ae aegypti formosus exist in sympatry in the area. All Aedes pools (75) were negative for DENV, ZIKV and CHKV when examined by RT- PCR. Three Larval indices namely House Index, HI (percentage of houses positive for Aedes larvae or pupae), Container Index, CI (the percentage of containers positive for Aedes larvae or pupae) and Breteau Index, BI (number of positive containers per 100 houses inspected) were assessed as a measure for risk of transmission in the study area. The HI, CI and BI for both sites were as follows; Mole Game Reserve (HI, 42.1%, CI, 23.5% and BI, 100 for rainy season and 0 for all indices for dry season) and Larabanga (39%, 15.5% and 61 for rainy season and 2.3%, 1.3% and 2.3 for dry season). The spatial distribution of Aedes breeding sites in both areas indicated that Aedes larvae were breeding in areas with close proximity to humans. Lorry tires were the main source of Aedes larvae in all the study areas. Information about the species composition and the potential role of Aedes mosquitoes in future outbreaks of the diseases that they transmit is needed to design efficient surveillance and vector control tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joannitta Joannides
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Mawuli Dzodzomenyo
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Faustus Azerigyik
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Eudocia Esinam Agbosu
- Department of Virology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Deborah Pratt
- Department of Virology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joseph Harold Nyarko Osei
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Rebecca Pwalia
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Godwin Kwame Amlalo
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Maxwell Appawu
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Hayashi Takashi
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- Department of Molecular Virology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shiroh Iwanaga
- Department of Environmental Parasitology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Andrea Buchwald
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Rosemary Rochford
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Daniel Boakye
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Kwadwo Koram
- Department of Epidemiology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Kofi Bonney
- Department of Virology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel Dadzie
- Department of Parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
- * E-mail:
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Pwalia R, Joannides J, Iddrisu A, Addae C, Acquah-Baidoo D, Obuobi D, Amlalo G, Akporh S, Gbagba S, Dadzie SK, Athinya DK, Hadi MP, Jamet HP, Chabi J. High insecticide resistance intensity of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) and low efficacy of pyrethroid LLINs in Accra, Ghana. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:299. [PMID: 31196222 PMCID: PMC6567633 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3556-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Insecticide resistance of Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) against public health insecticides is increasingly reported in Ghana and need to be closely monitored. This study investigated the intensity of insecticide resistance of An. gambiae (s.l.) found in a vegetable growing area in Accra, Ghana, where insecticides, herbicides and fertilizers are massively used for plant protection. The bioefficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) currently distributed in the country was also assessed to delimitate the impact of the insecticide resistance intensity on the effectiveness of those nets. Methods Three- to five-day-old adult mosquitoes that emerged from collected larvae from Opeibea, Accra (Ghana), were assayed using CDC bottle and WHO tube intensity assays against different insecticides. The Vgsc-L1014F and ace-1 mutations within the population were also characterized using PCR methods. Furthermore, cone bioassays against different types of LLINs were conducted to evaluate the extent and impact of the resistance of An. gambiae (s.l.) from Opeibea. Results Anopheles gambiae (s.l.) from Opeibea were resistant to all the insecticides tested with very low mortality observed against organochlorine, carbamates and pyrethroid insecticides using WHO susceptibility tests at diagnostic doses during three consecutive years of monitoring. The average frequencies of Vgsc-1014F and ace-1 in the An. gambiae (s.l.) population tested were 0.99 and 0.76, respectively. The intensity assays using both CDC bottle and WHO tubes showed high resistance intensity to pyrethroids and carbamates with survivals at 10× the diagnostic doses of the insecticides tested. Only pirimiphos methyl recorded a low resistance intensity with 100% mortality at 5× the diagnostic dose. The bioefficacy of pyrethroid LLINs ranged from 2.2 to 16.2% mortality while the PBO LLIN, PermaNet® 3.0, was 73%. Conclusions WHO susceptibility tests using the diagnostic doses described the susceptibility status of the mosquito colony while CDC bottle and WHO tube intensity assays showed varying degrees of resistance intensity. Although both methods are not directly comparable, the indication of the resistance intensity showed the alarming insecticide resistance intensity in Opeibea and its surroundings, which could have an operational impact on the efficacy of vector control tools and particularly on pyrethroid LLINs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3556-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Pwalia
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Joannitta Joannides
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Alidu Iddrisu
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Charlotte Addae
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Dominic Acquah-Baidoo
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Dorothy Obuobi
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Godwin Amlalo
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel Akporh
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Sampson Gbagba
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana.,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel K Dadzie
- Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Duncan K Athinya
- University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.,Vestergaard East Africa, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | | | - Joseph Chabi
- Vestergaard-NMIMR Vector Labs, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana. .,Department of parasitology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR), University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
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