1
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Kotobi A, Singh K, Höche D, Bari S, Meißner RH, Bande A. Integrating Explainability into Graph Neural Network Models for the Prediction of X-ray Absorption Spectra. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:22584-22598. [PMID: 37807700 PMCID: PMC10591337 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c07513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
The use of sophisticated machine learning (ML) models, such as graph neural networks (GNNs), to predict complex molecular properties or all kinds of spectra has grown rapidly. However, ensuring the interpretability of these models' predictions remains a challenge. For example, a rigorous understanding of the predicted X-ray absorption spectrum (XAS) generated by such ML models requires an in-depth investigation of the respective black-box ML model used. Here, this is done for different GNNs based on a comprehensive, custom-generated XAS data set for small organic molecules. We show that a thorough analysis of the different ML models with respect to the local and global environments considered in each ML model is essential for the selection of an appropriate ML model that allows a robust XAS prediction. Moreover, we employ feature attribution to determine the respective contributions of various atoms in the molecules to the peaks observed in the XAS spectrum. By comparing this peak assignment to the core and virtual orbitals from the quantum chemical calculations underlying our data set, we demonstrate that it is possible to relate the atomic contributions via these orbitals to the XAS spectrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Kotobi
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, Institute of Surface
Science, Geesthacht, DE 21502, Germany
| | - Kanishka Singh
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Berlin für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin, DE 10409, Germany
- Institute
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität
Berlin, Berlin, DE 14195, Germany
| | - Daniel Höche
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, Institute of Surface
Science, Geesthacht, DE 21502, Germany
| | - Sadia Bari
- Deutsches
Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg, DE 22607, Germany
- Zernike
Institute for Advanced Materials, University
of Groningen, Groningen 9712, Netherlands
| | - Robert H. Meißner
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, Institute of Surface
Science, Geesthacht, DE 21502, Germany
- Hamburg
University of Technology, Institute of Polymers
and Composites, Hamburg, DE 21073, Germany
| | - Annika Bande
- Helmholtz-Zentrum
Berlin für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin, DE 10409, Germany
- Leibniz
University Hannover, Institute of Inorganic
Chemistry, Hannover, DE 30167, Germany
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2
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Gürsoy E, Vonbun-Feldbauer GB, Meißner RH. Oxidation-State Dynamics and Emerging Patterns in Magnetite. J Phys Chem Lett 2023; 14:6800-6807. [PMID: 37479223 PMCID: PMC10405268 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c01290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Magnetite is an important mineral with many interesting applications related to its magnetic, electrical, and thermal properties. Typically studied by electronic structure calculations, these methods are unable to capture the complex ion dynamics at relevant temperatures, time, and length scales. We present a hybrid Monte Carlo/molecular dynamics (MC/MD) method based on iron oxidation-state swapping for accurate atomistic modeling of bulk magnetite, magnetite surfaces, and nanoparticles that captures the complex ionic dynamics. By comparing the oxidation-state patterns with those obtained from density functional theory, we confirmed the accuracy of our approach. Lattice distortions leading to the stabilization of excess charges and a critical surface thickness at which the oxidation states transition from ordered to disordered were observed. This simple yet efficient approach paves the way for elucidating aspects of oxidation-state ordering of inverse spinel structures in general and battery materials in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emre Gürsoy
- Institute
of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University
of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Robert H. Meißner
- Institute
of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University
of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
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3
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Kotobi A, Schwob L, Vonbun-Feldbauer GB, Rossi M, Gasparotto P, Feiler C, Berden G, Oomens J, Oostenrijk B, Scuderi D, Bari S, Meißner RH. Reconstructing the infrared spectrum of a peptide from representative conformers of the full canonical ensemble. Commun Chem 2023; 6:46. [PMID: 36869192 PMCID: PMC9984374 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-023-00835-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine enkephalin (LeuEnk), a biologically active endogenous opioid pentapeptide, has been under intense investigation because it is small enough to allow efficient use of sophisticated computational methods and large enough to provide insights into low-lying minima of its conformational space. Here, we reproduce and interpret experimental infrared (IR) spectra of this model peptide in gas phase using a combination of replica-exchange molecular dynamics simulations, machine learning, and ab initio calculations. In particular, we evaluate the possibility of averaging representative structural contributions to obtain an accurate computed spectrum that accounts for the corresponding canonical ensemble of the real experimental situation. Representative conformers are identified by partitioning the conformational phase space into subensembles of similar conformers. The IR contribution of each representative conformer is calculated from ab initio and weighted according to the population of each cluster. Convergence of the averaged IR signal is rationalized by merging contributions in a hierarchical clustering and the comparison to IR multiple photon dissociation experiments. The improvements achieved by decomposing clusters containing similar conformations into even smaller subensembles is strong evidence that a thorough assessment of the conformational landscape and the associated hydrogen bonding is a prerequisite for deciphering important fingerprints in experimental spectroscopic data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Kotobi
- grid.7683.a0000 0004 0492 0453Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lucas Schwob
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Gregor B. Vonbun-Feldbauer
- grid.6884.20000 0004 0549 1777Hamburg University of Technology, Institute of Advanced Ceramics, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mariana Rossi
- grid.469852.40000 0004 1796 3508Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Piero Gasparotto
- grid.5991.40000 0001 1090 7501Scientific Computing Division, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Christian Feiler
- grid.24999.3f0000 0004 0541 3699Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Institute of Surface Science, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Giel Berden
- grid.5590.90000000122931605Radboud University, Institute for Molecules and Materials, FELIX Laboratory, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jos Oomens
- grid.5590.90000000122931605Radboud University, Institute for Molecules and Materials, FELIX Laboratory, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Bart Oostenrijk
- grid.7683.a0000 0004 0492 0453Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg, Germany ,grid.9026.d0000 0001 2287 2617The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Debora Scuderi
- grid.503243.3Institut de Chimie Physique, CNRS UMR8000, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France
| | - Sadia Bari
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Hamburg, Germany. .,The Hamburg Centre for Ultrafast Imaging, Hamburg, Germany. .,Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Robert H. Meißner
- grid.24999.3f0000 0004 0541 3699Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Institute of Surface Science, Geesthacht, Germany ,grid.6884.20000 0004 0549 1777Hamburg University of Technology, Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg, Germany
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4
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Li X, Würger T, Feiler C, Meißner RH, Serdechnova M, Blawert C, Zheludkevich ML. Atomistic Insight into the Hydration States of Layered Double Hydroxides. ACS Omega 2022; 7:12412-12423. [PMID: 35449924 PMCID: PMC9016811 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c01115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Effective protective coatings are an essential component of lightweight engineering materials in a large variety of applications as they ensure structural integrity of the base material throughout its whole service life. Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) loaded with corrosion inhibitors depict a promising approach to realize an active corrosion protection for aluminum and magnesium. In this work, we employed a combination of density functional theory and molecular dynamics simulations to gain a deeper understanding of the influence of intercalated water content on the structure, the stability, and the anion-exchange capacity of four different LDH systems containing either nitrate, carbonate, or oxalate as potential corrosion inhibiting agents or chloride as a corrosion initiator. To quantify the structural change, we studied the atom density distribution, radial distribution function, and orientation of the intercalated anions. Additionally, we determined the stability of the LDH systems by calculating their respective hydration energies, hydrogen-bonded network connected to the intercalated water molecules, as well as the self-diffusion coefficients of the intercalated anions to provide an estimate for the probability of their release after intercalation. The obtained computational results suggest that the hydration state of LDHs has a significant effect on their key properties like interlayer spacing and self-diffusion coefficients of the intercalated anions. Furthermore, we conclude from our simulation results that a high self-diffusion coefficient which is linked to the mobility of the intercalated anions is vital for its release via an anion-exchange mechanism and to subsequently mitigate corrosion reactions. Furthermore, the presented theoretical study provides a robust force field for the computer-assisted design of further LDH-based active anticorrosion coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejiao Li
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
| | - Tim Würger
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
- Institute
of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University
of Technology, Hamburg 21073, Germany
| | - Christian Feiler
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
| | - Robert H. Meißner
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
- Institute
of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University
of Technology, Hamburg 21073, Germany
| | - Maria Serdechnova
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
| | - Carsten Blawert
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
| | - Mikhail L. Zheludkevich
- Institute
of Surface Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
- Institute
for Materials Science, Faculty of Engineering, Kiel University, Kiel 24103, Germany
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5
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Seebeck J, Merlet C, Meißner RH. Elucidating Curvature-Capacitance Relationships in Carbon-Based Supercapacitors. Phys Rev Lett 2022; 128:086001. [PMID: 35275675 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.128.086001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale surface curvatures, either convex or concave, strongly influence the charging behavior of supercapacitors. Rationalizing individual influences of electrode atoms to the capacitance is possible by interpreting distinct elements of the charge-charge covariance matrix derived from individual charge variations of the electrode atoms. An ionic liquid solvated in acetonitrile and confined between two electrodes, each consisting of three undulated graphene layers, serves as a demonstrator to illustrate pronounced and nontrivial features of the capacitance with respect to the electrode curvature. In addition, the applied voltage determines whether a convex or concave surface contributes to increased capacitance. While at lower voltages capacitance variations are in general correlated with ion number density variations in the double layer formed in the concave region of the electrode, for certain electrode designs a surprisingly strong contribution of the convex part to the differential capacitance is found both at higher and lower voltages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannes Seebeck
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Céline Merlet
- CIRIMAT, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Université Toulouse 3 - Paul Sabatier, 118 Route de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse cedex 9 - France and Réseau sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie (RS2E), Fédération de Recherche CNRS 3459, HUB de l'Energie, Rue Baudelocque, 80039 Amiens, France
| | - Robert H Meißner
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany and Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Institute of Surface Science, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
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6
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Gäding J, Tocci G, Busch M, Huber P, Meißner RH. Impact of confinement and polarizability on dynamics of ionic liquids. J Chem Phys 2022; 156:064703. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0077408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Gäding
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gabriele Tocci
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zurich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mark Busch
- Institute for Materials and X-Ray Physics, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Centre for X-Ray and Nano Science CXNS, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
- Centre for Hybrid Nanostructures CHyN, Hamburg University, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Patrick Huber
- Institute for Materials and X-Ray Physics, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Centre for X-Ray and Nano Science CXNS, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
- Centre for Hybrid Nanostructures CHyN, Hamburg University, 22761 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Robert H. Meißner
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, 21073 Hamburg, Germany
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Institute of Surface Science, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
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7
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Joly L, Meißner RH, Iannuzzi M, Tocci G. Osmotic Transport at the Aqueous Graphene and hBN Interfaces: Scaling Laws from a Unified, First-Principles Description. ACS Nano 2021; 15:15249-15258. [PMID: 34491721 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c05931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Osmotic transport in nanoconfined aqueous electrolytes provides alternative venues for water desalination and "blue energy" harvesting. The osmotic response of nanofluidic systems is controlled by the interfacial structure of water and electrolyte solutions in the so-called electrical double layer (EDL), but a molecular-level picture of the EDL is to a large extent still lacking. Particularly, the role of the electronic structure has not been considered in the description of electrolyte/surface interactions. Here, we report enhanced sampling simulations based on ab initio molecular dynamics, aiming at unravelling the free energy of prototypical ions adsorbed at the aqueous graphene and hBN interfaces, and its consequences on nanofluidic osmotic transport. Specifically, we predicted the zeta potential, the diffusio-osmotic mobility, and the diffusio-osmotic conductivity for a wide range of salt concentrations from the ab initio water and ion spatial distributions through an analytical framework based on Stokes equation and a modified Poisson-Boltzmann equation. We observed concentration-dependent scaling laws, together with dramatic differences in osmotic transport between the two interfaces, including diffusio-osmotic flow and current reversal on hBN but not on graphene. We could rationalize the results for the three osmotic responses with a simple model based on characteristic length scales for ion and water adsorption at the surface, which are quite different on graphene and on hBN. Our work provides fundamental insights into the structure and osmotic transport of aqueous electrolytes on 2D materials and explores alternative pathways for efficient water desalination and osmotic energy conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Joly
- Univ Lyon, Univ Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Institut Lumière Matière, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 1 rue Descartes, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Robert H Meißner
- Hamburg University of Technology, Insitute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg 21073, Germany
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Institute of Surface Science, Geesthacht 21502, Germany
| | - Marcella Iannuzzi
- Department of Chemistry, Universität Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Gabriele Tocci
- Department of Chemistry, Universität Zürich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
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8
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Abstract
Molecular dynamics simulations in a constant potential ensemble are an increasingly important tool to investigate charging mechanisms in next-generation energy storage devices. We present a highly efficient approach to compute electrostatic interactions in simulations employing a constant potential method (CPM) by introducing a particle-particle particle-mesh solver specifically designed for treating long-range interactions in a CPM. Moreover, we present evidence that a dipole correction term-commonly used in simulations with a slab-like geometry-must be used with caution if it is also to be used within a CPM. It is demonstrated that artifacts arising from the usage of the dipole correction term can be circumvented by enforcing a charge neutrality condition in the evaluation of the electrode charges at a given external potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert H Meißner
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
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9
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Konrad J, Meißner RH, Bitzek E, Zahn D. A Molecular Simulation Approach to Bond Reorganization in Epoxy Resins: From Curing to Deformation and Fracture. ACS Polym Au 2021; 1:165-174. [PMID: 36855655 PMCID: PMC9954341 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.1c00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We model bond formation and dissociation processes in thermosetting polymer networks from molecular dynamics simulations. For this, a coarsened molecular mechanics model is derived from quantum calculations to provide effective interaction potentials that enable million-atoms scale simulations. The importance of bond (re)organization is demonstrated for (i) simulating epoxy resin formation-for which our approach leads to realistic network models which can now account for degrees of curing up to 98%. Moreover, (ii) we elucidate the competition of bond dissociation and bond reformation during plastic deformation and fracture. On this basis, we rationalize the molecular mechanisms that account for the irreversible nature of damaging epoxy polymers by mechanical load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Konrad
- Department
of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Computer Chemistry Center, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91052, Germany
| | - Robert H. Meißner
- Institute
of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University
of Technology, Hamburg, 21073, Germany,Helmholtz-Zentrum
Hereon, Institute of Surface Science, Geesthacht, 21502, Germany
| | - Erik Bitzek
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute I, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91052, Germany
| | - Dirk Zahn
- Department
of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Computer Chemistry Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91052, Germany,
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10
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Meißner RH, Konrad J, Boll B, Fiedler B, Zahn D. Molecular Simulation of Thermosetting Polymer Hardening: Reactive Events Enabled by Controlled Topology Transfer. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert H. Meißner
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
- Institute of Materials Research, MagIC - Magnesium Innovation Centre, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Julian Konrad
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Computer Chemistry Center, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Boll
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bodo Fiedler
- Institute of Polymers and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Dirk Zahn
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Computer Chemistry Center, Friedrich Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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11
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Würger T, Feiler C, Vonbun-Feldbauer GB, Zheludkevich ML, Meißner RH. A first-principles analysis of the charge transfer in magnesium corrosion. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15006. [PMID: 32929161 PMCID: PMC7490698 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71694-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnesium is the lightest structural engineering material and bears high potential to manufacture automotive components, medical implants and energy storage systems. However, the practical use of untreated magnesium alloys is restricted as they are prone to corrosion. An essential prerequisite for the control or prevention of the degradation process is a deeper understanding of the underlying corrosion mechanisms. Prior investigations of the formation of gaseous hydrogen during the corrosion of magnesium indicated that the predominant mechanism for this process follows the Volmer-Heyrovský rather than the previously assumed Volmer-Tafel pathway. However, the energetic and electronic states of both reaction paths as well as the charge state of dissolved magnesium have not been fully unraveled yet. In this study, density functional theory calculations were employed to determine these parameters for the Volmer, Tafel and Heyrovský steps to gain a comprehensive understanding of the major corrosion mechanisms responsible for the degradation of magnesium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Würger
- Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Centre for Materials and Coastal Research, Geesthacht, Germany
- Institute of Polymer and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Feiler
- Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Centre for Materials and Coastal Research, Geesthacht, Germany
| | | | - Mikhail L Zheludkevich
- Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Centre for Materials and Coastal Research, Geesthacht, Germany
- Institute for Materials Science, Faculty of Engineering, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Robert H Meißner
- Institute of Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Centre for Materials and Coastal Research, Geesthacht, Germany.
- Institute of Polymer and Composites, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany.
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