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Ingraham NE, Barakat AG, Reilkoff R, Bezdicek T, Schacker T, Chipman JG, Tignanelli CJ, Puskarich MA. Understanding the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-SARS-CoV axis: a comprehensive review. Eur Respir J 2020; 56:13993003.00912-2020. [PMID: 32341103 PMCID: PMC7236830 DOI: 10.1183/13993003.00912-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Importance Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been declared a global pandemic with significant morbidity and mortality since first appearing in Wuhan, China, in late 2019. As many countries are grappling with the onset of their epidemics, pharmacotherapeutics remain lacking. The window of opportunity to mitigate downstream morbidity and mortality is narrow but remains open. The renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS) is crucial to the homeostasis of both the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Importantly, SARS-CoV-2 utilises and interrupts this pathway directly, which could be described as the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone–SARS-CoV (RAAS–SCoV) axis. There exists significant controversy and confusion surrounding how anti-hypertensive agents might function along this pathway. This review explores the current state of knowledge regarding the RAAS–SCoV axis (informed by prior studies of SARS-CoV), how this relates to our currently evolving pandemic, and how these insights might guide our next steps in an evidence-based manner. Observations This review discusses the role of the RAAS–SCoV axis in acute lung injury and the effects, risks and benefits of pharmacological modification of this axis. There may be an opportunity to leverage the different aspects of RAAS inhibitors to mitigate indirect viral-induced lung injury. Concerns have been raised that such modulation might exacerbate the disease. While relevant preclinical, experimental models to date favour a protective effect of RAAS–SCoV axis inhibition on both lung injury and survival, clinical data related to the role of RAAS modulation in the setting of SARS-CoV-2 remain limited. Conclusion Proposed interventions for SARS-CoV-2 predominantly focus on viral microbiology and aim to inhibit viral cellular injury. While these therapies are promising, immediate use may not be feasible, and the time window of their efficacy remains a major unanswered question. An alternative approach is the modulation of the specific downstream pathophysiological effects caused by the virus that lead to morbidity and mortality. We propose a preponderance of evidence that supports clinical equipoise regarding the efficacy of RAAS-based interventions, and the imminent need for a multisite randomised controlled clinical trial to evaluate the inhibition of the RAAS–SCoV axis on acute lung injury in COVID-19. The interplay of SARS-CoV-2 with the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system probably accounts for much of its unique pathology. Appreciating the degree and mechanism of this interaction highlights potential therapeutic options, including blockade (ARBs).https://bit.ly/3aue4tS
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas E Ingraham
- Dept of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Abdo G Barakat
- Dept of Anesthesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Ronald Reilkoff
- Dept of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Tamara Bezdicek
- Dept of Pharmacy, Fairview Pharmacy Services, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Timothy Schacker
- Dept of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Division of Medicine and Infectious Disease, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jeffrey G Chipman
- Dept of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Division of Acute Care Surgery, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Christopher J Tignanelli
- Dept of Surgery, University of Minnesota, Division of Acute Care Surgery, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Institute for Health Informatics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Michael A Puskarich
- Dept of Emergency Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.,Dept of Emergency Medicine, Hennepin County Medical Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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Tignanelli CJ, Ingraham NE, Sparks MA, Reilkoff R, Bezdicek T, Benson B, Schacker T, Chipman JG, Puskarich MA. Antihypertensive drugs and risk of COVID-19? Lancet Respir Med 2020; 8:e30-e31. [PMID: 32222166 PMCID: PMC7194709 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(20)30153-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Tignanelli
- Department of Surgery, Division of Acute Care Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Institute for Health Informatics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | - Nicholas E Ingraham
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Matthew A Sparks
- Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Ronald Reilkoff
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Tamara Bezdicek
- Department of Pharmacy, Fairview Southdale, Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Bradley Benson
- Department of Medicine, Division of General Internal Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Timothy Schacker
- Department of Medicine, Division of Medicine and Infectious Disease, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Jeffrey G Chipman
- Department of Surgery, Division of Acute Care Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Michael A Puskarich
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Emergency Medicine, Hennepin County Medical Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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Reilkoff R, Stephenson L. Fulminant hepatic failure in the setting of progressive ANCA-associated vasculitis associated with a rare alpha-1 antitrypsin phenotype, 'PiEE'. BMJ Case Rep 2018; 2018:bcr-2017-222036. [PMID: 29592975 PMCID: PMC5878378 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2017-222036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormalities in alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) proteins are risk factors for human disease. While the most common is AAT deficiency, a genetic disorder associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, additional disorders associated with AAT abnormalities are increasingly recognised. We describe a middle-aged woman who presented with fulminant hepatic and multiorgan failure. Evaluation revealed the patient to have a rare AAT phenotype PiEE. Her clinical presentation was consistent with antineutrophilic cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis, and her history suggested features of panniculitis. This is the first description of this rare homozygous AAT phenotype and possible disease associations with the ’E' protein. Given that abnormal AAT are under-recognised, and that new mutations and phenotypes continue to be identified, we will need to expand on our knowledge base and report clinical manifestations associated with these abnormal phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Reilkoff
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.,Critical Care, Fairview Southdale Hospital, Edina, Minnesota, USA
| | - Laurel Stephenson
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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Gan Y, Reilkoff R, Peng X, Russell T, Chen Q, Mathai SK, Homer R, Gulati M, Siner J, Elias J, Bucala R, Herzog E. Role of semaphorin 7a signaling in transforming growth factor β1-induced lung fibrosis and scleroderma-related interstitial lung disease. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 63:2484-94. [PMID: 21484765 DOI: 10.1002/art.30386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Semaphorin 7a regulates transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1)-induced fibrosis. This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that semaphorin 7a exerts its profibrotic effects in part by promoting the tissue accumulation of CD45+ fibrocytes. METHODS A murine model of pulmonary fibrosis in which an inducible, bioactive form of the human TGFβ1 gene is overexpressed in the lung was used. Fibrosis and fibrocytes were evaluated in TGFβ1-transgenic mice in which the semaphorin 7a locus had been disrupted. The effect of replacement or deletion of semaphorin 7a on bone marrow-derived cells was ascertained using bone marrow transplantation. The role of the semaphorin 7a receptor β1 integrin was assessed using neutralizing antibodies. The applicability of these findings to TGFβ1-driven fibrosis in humans was examined in patients with scleroderma-related interstitial lung disease (ILD). RESULTS The appearance of fibrocytes in the lungs of TGFβ1-transgenic mice required semaphorin 7a. Replacement of semaphorin 7a on bone marrow-derived cells restored lung fibrosis and fibrocytes. Immunoneutralization of β1 integrin reduced pulmonary fibrocytes and fibrosis. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with scleroderma-related ILD showed increased levels of messenger RNA for semaphorin 7a and its receptors, with semaphorin 7a located on collagen-producing fibrocytes and CD19+ lymphocytes. Peripheral blood fibrocyte outgrowth was enhanced in these patients. Stimulation of normal human PBMCs with recombinant semaphorin 7a enhanced fibrocyte differentiation; these effects were attenuated by β1 integrin neutralization. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that interventions that reduce semaphorin 7a expression or prevent the semaphorin 7a-β1 integrin interaction may ameliorate TGFβ1-driven or fibrocyte-associated autoimmune fibroses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Gan
- Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Peng X, Mathai SK, Murray LA, Russell T, Reilkoff R, Chen Q, Gulati M, Elias JA, Bucala R, Gan Y, Herzog EL. Local apoptosis promotes collagen production by monocyte-derived cells in transforming growth factor β1-induced lung fibrosis. Fibrogenesis Tissue Repair 2011; 4:12. [PMID: 21586112 PMCID: PMC3123188 DOI: 10.1186/1755-1536-4-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Collagen-containing leukocytes (CD45+Col-I+) accumulate in diseased and fibrotic tissues. However, the precise identity of these cells and whether injury is required for their recruitment remain unknown. Using a murine model of pulmonary fibrosis in which an inducible, bioactive form of the human transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 gene is targeted to the lung, we characterized the cell surface phenotype of collagen-containing CD45+ cells in the lung and tested the hypothesis that apoptotic cell death responses are essential to the accumulation of CD45+Col-I+ cells. RESULTS Our studies demonstrate that CD45+Col-I+ cells appearing in the TGF-β1-exposed murine lung express markers of the monocyte lineage. Inhibition of apoptosis via pharmacological caspase blockade led to a significant reduction in CD45+Col-I+ cells, which appear to accumulate independently of alternatively activated macrophages. There are also increased levels of apoptosis and greater numbers of CD45+Col-I+ in the lung tissue of patients with two distinct forms of fibrotic lung disease, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and connective tissue disease-related interstitial lung disease, when compared to lung from healthy normal controls. These findings are accompanied by an increase in collagen production in cultured monocytes obtained from subjects with fibrotic lung disease. Treatment of these cultured cells with the caspase inhibitor carbobenzoxy-valyl-alanyl-aspartyl-[O-methyl]-fluoromethylketone (Z-VAD/fmk) reduces both apoptosis and collagen production in all subjects. CONCLUSIONS Interventions that prevent collagen production by monocytes via modulation of caspase activation and of apoptosis may be ameliorative in monocyte-associated, TGF-β1-driven processes such as pulmonary fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Peng
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Susan K Mathai
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - Thomas Russell
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ronald Reilkoff
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Qingsheng Chen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Mridu Gulati
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Jack A Elias
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Richard Bucala
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ye Gan
- Department of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan China
| | - Erica L Herzog
- Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, 300 Cedar Street, TAC 441S, New Haven, CT, USA
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