A motor resonance mechanism in children? Evidence from subdural electrodes in a 36-month-old child

The presence of a neural mechanism matching execution and observation of actions in the adult human brain is well established. In children, however, description of a resonance motor mechanism is still preliminary. In the present study, we recorded electroencephalographic signals from a subdural 64-contact grid electrode in a 36-month-old child with epilepsy. Spectral analysis was performed on sequences where the child drew with her right hand, watched an experimenter drawing with his right hand or was at rest. Contact sites corresponding to sensorimotor areas were discovered where absolute power was decreased during both observation and execution of hand/arm actions. These data suggest the presence of a mirror neuron system early in the developing brain.

CTLA-4 up-regulation plays a role in tolerance mediated by CD45

Cytolytic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) is a critical down-regulatory molecule in T cells that plays a major role in peripheral tolerance. Although the CD45 protein tyrosine phosphatase is a potent immunomodulatory target, the mechanisms by which antibody against CD45RB isoforms (anti-CD45RB) induces allograft tolerance remain unclear. We show here that anti-CD45RB treatment alters CD45 isoform expression on T cells, which is associated with rapid up-regulation of CTLA-4 expression. These effects appear specific and occur without up-regulation of other activation markers. Administration of a blocking monoclonal antibody to CTLA-4 at the time of transplantation prevents anti-CD45RB therapy from prolonging islet allograft survival. In addition, treatment with cyclosporin A blocks anti-CD45RB-induced CTLA-4 expression and promotes acute rejection. These data suggest that anti-CD45RB acts through mechanisms that include CTLA-4 up-regulation and demonstrate a link between CD45 and CTLA-4 that depends on calcineurin-mediated signaling. They demonstrate also that CTLA-4 expression may be specifically targeted to enhance allograft acceptance.

Targeting signal 1 through CD45RB synergizes with CD40 ligand blockade and promotes long term engraftment and tolerance in stringent transplant models

The induction and maintenance of allograft tolerance is a daunting challenge. Although combined blockade of CD28 and CD40 ligand (CD40L)-costimulatory pathways prevents allograft rejection in some murine models, this strategy is unable to sustain engraftment in the most immunogenic allograft and strain combinations. By targeting T cell activation signals 1 and 2 with the novel combination of anti-CD45RB and anti-CD40L, we now demonstrate potent enhancement of engraftment in C57BL/6 recipients that are relatively resistant to costimulatory blockade. This combination significantly augments the induction of tolerance to islet allografts and dramatically prolongs primary skin allograft survival. Compared with either agent alone, anti-CD45RB plus anti-CD40L inhibits periislet infiltration by CD8 cells, B cells, and monocytes; inhibits Th1 cytokines; and increases Th2 cytokine expression within the graft. These data indicate that interference with activation signals one and two may provide synergy essential for prolonged engraftment in situations where costimulatory blockade is only partially effective.