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Sparks N, Vijayan SM, Roy JK, Dorris A, Lambert E, Karunathilaka D, Hammer NI, Leszczynski J, Watkins DL. Synthesis and Characterization of Novel Thienothiadiazole-Based D-π-A-π-D Fluorophores as Potential NIR Imaging Agents. ACS Omega 2023; 8:24513-24523. [PMID: 37457472 PMCID: PMC10339328 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c02602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
As fluorescence bioimaging has increased in popularity, there have been numerous reports on designing organic fluorophores with desirable properties amenable to perform this task, specifically fluorophores with emission in the near-infrared II (NIR-II) region. One such strategy is to utilize the donor-π-acceptor-π-donor approach (D-π-A-π-D), as this allows for control of the photophysical properties of the resulting fluorophores through modulation of the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy levels. Herein, we illustrate the properties of thienothiadiazole (TTD) as an effective acceptor moiety in the design of NIR emissive fluorophores. TTD is a well-known electron-deficient species, but its use as an acceptor in D-π-A-π-D systems has not been extensively studied. We employed TTD as an acceptor unit in a series of two fluorophores and characterized the photophysical properties through experimental and computational studies. Both fluorophores exhibited emission maxima in the NIR-I that extends into the NIR-II. We also utilized electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy to rationalize differences in the measured quantum yield values and demonstrated, to our knowledge, the first experimental evidence of radical species on a TTD-based small-molecule fluorophore. Encapsulation of the fluorophores using a surfactant formed polymeric nanoparticles, which were studied by photophysical and morphological techniques. The results of this work illustrate the potential of TTD as an acceptor in the design of NIR-II emissive fluorophores for fluorescence bioimaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas
E. Sparks
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Sajith M. Vijayan
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Juganta K. Roy
- Interdisciplinary
Center for Nanotoxicity, Department of Chemistry, Physics and Atmospheric
Sciences, Jackson-State University, Jackson, Mississippi 39217, United States
| | - Austin Dorris
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Ethan Lambert
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Dilan Karunathilaka
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Nathan I. Hammer
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Jerzy Leszczynski
- Interdisciplinary
Center for Nanotoxicity, Department of Chemistry, Physics and Atmospheric
Sciences, Jackson-State University, Jackson, Mississippi 39217, United States
| | - Davita L. Watkins
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Mississippi University, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
- William
G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W Woodruff Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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Vijayan SM, Sparks N, Roy JK, Smith C, Tate C, Hammer NI, Leszczynski J, Watkins DL. Evaluating Donor Effects in Isoindigo-Based Small Molecular Fluorophores. J Phys Chem A 2020; 124:10777-10786. [PMID: 33305579 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.0c07796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Small molecular organic fluorophores have garnered significant interest because of their indispensable use in fluorescence imaging (FI) and optoelectronic devices. Herein, we designed triphenylamine (TPA)-capped donor-acceptor-donor (D-A-D)-based fluorophores having a variation at the heterocyclic donor (D) units, 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT), furan (FURAN), thiophene (THIO), and 1-methyl-1H-pyrrole (MePyr), with isoindigo as the core electron acceptor (A) unit. Synthesis of these fluorophores (II-X-TPA) resulted in four symmetrical dye molecules: II-EDOT-TPA, II-FURAN-TPA, II-THIO-TPA, and II-MePyr-TPA, where TPA functioned as a terminal unit and a secondary electron donor group. Photophysical, electrochemical, and computational analyses were conducted to investigate the effect of heterocyclic donor units on the II-X-TPA derivatives. Density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) calculations provided insightful features of structural and electronic properties of each fluorophore and correlated well with experimental observations. Electron density distribution maps, overlapping frontier molecular orbital diagrams, and highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) to lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) electron transfer indicated intramolecular charge transfer (ICT). Theoretical studies confirmed the experimental HOMO energy trend and demonstrated its crucial importance in understanding each heterocycle's donor ability. Stokes shifts of up to ∼178 nm were observed, whereas absorptions and emissions were shifted deeper into the NIR region, resulting from ICT. Results suggest that this isoindigo fluorophore series has potential as a molecular scaffold for the development of efficient FI agents. The studied fluorophores can be further tuned with different donor fragments to enhance the ICT and facilitate in shifting the optical properties further into the NIR region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajith M Vijayan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Nicholas Sparks
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Juganta K Roy
- Interdisciplinary Center for Nanotoxicity, Department of Chemistry, Physics and Atmospheric Sciences, Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi 39217, United States
| | - Cameron Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Christopher Tate
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Nathan I Hammer
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
| | - Jerzy Leszczynski
- Interdisciplinary Center for Nanotoxicity, Department of Chemistry, Physics and Atmospheric Sciences, Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi 39217, United States
| | - Davita L Watkins
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Mississippi, Oxford, Mississippi 38677, United States
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