A brief review on application of design of experiment for the analysis of pharmaceuticals using HPLC

The quality pioneer Dr. Joseph M. Juran first proposed the idea of quality by design. According to him, pharmaceutical quality by design is an organised approach to product development that starts with predetermined goals and places an emphasis on product, process understanding, control based on reliable science and quality risk management. The quality of a product or process can typically be affected by a number of input elements. Design of experiments has been employed widely recently to understand the impacts of multidimensional and interactions of input parameters on the output responses of analytical procedures and pharmaceutical goods. Depending on the design of experiments objectives, screening, characterization, or optimization of the process and formulation, a variety of designs, such as factorial or mixture, can be used. The most popular designs used in the stage of screening or factor selection are the 2-Level Factorial and Plackett-Burman designs, both of which have two levels for each factor (k), both economical and effective, and in optimization widely used designs in this step are full factorial at three levels, central composite, Box-Behnken design. The analysis of variance, regression significance, and lack of fit of the regression model were some of the key topics covered in the discussion of the main components of multiple regression model adjustment. Design of experiments is thus the primary element of the formulation and analytical quality by design. The details about design of experiments used for the analysis of pharmaceutical formulation using HPLC.

A concise summary of powder processing methodologies for flow enhancement

The knowledge of powder properties has been highlighted since the 19th century since most formulations focus on solid dosage forms, and powder flow is essential for various manufacturing operations. A poor powder flow may generate problems in the manufacturing processes and cause the plant's malfunction. Hence these problems should be studied and rectified beforehand by various powder flow techniques to improve and enhance powder flowability. The powder's physical properties can be determined using compendial and non-compendial methods. The non-compendial practices generally describe the powder response under the stress and shear experienced during their processing. The primary interest of the current report is to summarize the flow problems and enlist the techniques to eliminate the issues associated with the powder's flow properties, thereby increasing plant output and minimizing the production process inconvenience with excellent efficiency. In this review, we discuss powder flow and its measurement techniques and mainly focus on various approaches to improve the cohesive powder flow property.

Quality-by-design based fabrication of febuxostat-loaded nanoemulsion: Statistical optimization, characterizations, permeability, and bioavailability studies

The present work deals with QbD-based development of FEB-loaded nanoemulsion (FEB-NE) in order to enhance bioavailability and permeability. In the beginning, the risk assessment was performed on different experimental variables using the Ishikawa diagram followed by FMEA study in order to find critical process parameter (CPP) and critical material attributes (CMAs). To build quality in nanoemulsion, the quality target product profiles (QTPP) and critical quality attributes (CQAs) were determined. The different batches of FEB-NE were produced by the microemulsification-probe sonication method. Effect of varying levels of independent variables such as oil concentration (X₁), S_mix concentration (X₃), and amplitude (X₃) on responses such as globule size (Y₁), zeta potential (Y₂), and entrapment efficiency (Y₃) were studied using Box-Behnken design (BDD). FEB-NE formulation was optimized using a graphical and numerical method. The optimized formulation concentrations and their responses (CQAs) were located as design space in an overlay plot. The spherical shapes of globules were visualized by surface morphology using AFM and TEM. In vitro dissolution study showed 93.32% drug release from the optimized FEB-NE formulation. The drug release mechanism followed by the formulation was the Higuchi-matrix kinetics with a regression coefficient of 0.9236 (R²). FEB-NE showed enhanced permeability using PAMPA (artificial non-cell membrane) and everted gut sac model method. The developed optimized FEB-NE exhibited the enhancement of bioavailability by 2.48 fold as compared to FEB-suspension using Wistar rats suggesting improvement of solubility of a lipophilic drug. The optimized batch remained stable for 90 days at 4 °C and 25 °C. Thus, QbD-based development of FEB-NE can be useful for a better perspective on a commercial scale.

Development and Optimization of Vitamin D3 Solid Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System: Investigation of Flowability and Shelf Life

We report herein the design of a solid self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) of vitamin D₃ for augmentation of its solubility and dissolution. The studies employed a 3² full factorial design by employing JMP 13.2.1, software for preparation of liquid SMEDDS. Further, the prediction profiler was utilized to optimized liquid SMEDDS-Vit.D₃ (OF) formulation. The solidification of liquid SMEDDS-Vit.D₃ formulation was carried out by physical adsorption over Neusilin US2 and Aerosil 200 carriers. Solid-state evaluation of SMEDDS-Vit.D₃ suggested the transformation of crystalline to amorphous form of Vit.D₃ which is responsible for imparting more aqueous solubility and thus enhancement in dissolution behaviour. The investigation of flow behaviours viz. flow function (FF) and effective angle of wall friction (EAWF) of solid SMEDDS-Vit.D₃ was performed using powder flow tester. Solid SMEDDS-Vit.D₃ prepared using Neusilin US2 showed good flow behaviour and hence was developed into tablets. The tablets showed good quality control parameters as per pharmacopeial standards. The in vitro dissolution studies demonstrated more dissolution of Vit.D₃ in SMEDDS (liquid, solid, and tablet) when compared to the unprocessed drug. The shelf life (T₉₀) of tablets was reported to be 28.12 months suggesting excellent stability of Vit.D₃ in solid SMEDDS. In nutshell, our research works explore the utilization of SMEDDS for the oral delivery of Vit.D₃ to gain maximum health-related benefits.

Development and statistical optimization of alginate-Neusilin US2 micro-composite beads to elicit gastric stability and sustained action of hesperidin

The Alginate-Neusilin US2 micro-composite (MC) beads were fabricated and optimized for oral delivery of hesperidin (HES). A 32 full factorial design encompassing independent variables (factors) such as the concentration of sodium alginate (X1), and Neusilin US2 (X2) and dependant variables (response) such as particle size (Y1), entrapment efficiency (Y2), and swelling degree (Y3). Nine batches were prepared by formulation design employing statistical software JMP 13.2.1. The multiple regression analysis (MLRA) was carried to explore the influence of factor over responses. Further, a prediction profiler was used to trace the optimum concentration of factors based on desirable responses. The optimized beads (OF) were characterized for their morphology and size by motic microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. In vitro release, kinetic studies were performed in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies revealed better absorption of HES from optimized beads (OF) compared to HES suspension which could be due to the prevention of acidic degradation of HES in the stomach. The estimated shelf life of OF formulation was found to be 3.86 years suggested better stability after fabrication. In a nutshell, the developed micro-composite beads of HES could be a better alternative for promising oral sustained delivery of HES.

Solid self-microemulsifying nutraceutical delivery system for hesperidin using quality by design: assessment of biopharmaceutical attributes and shelf-life

AIM

The present study endeavours to develop a solid self-microemulsifying nutraceutical drug delivery system for hesperidin (HES) using quality by design (QbD) to improve its biopharmaceutical attributes.

METHODS

A 3² full factorial design was employed to study the influence of factors on selected responses. Risk assessment was performed by portraying Ishikawa fishbone diagram and failure mode effect analysis (FMEA). The in vivo antidiabetic study was carried on induced diabetic rats.

RESULTS

The optimised liquid SMEDDS-HES (OF) formulation showed emulsification time (Y ₁) = 102.5 ± 2.52 s, globule size (Y ₂) = 225.2 ± 3.40 nm, polydispersity index (Y ₃) = 0.294 ± 0.62, and zeta potential (Y ₄) = -25.4 ± 1.74 mV, respectively. The solid SMEDDS-HES (SOF-7) formulation was characterised by FTIR, PXRD, DSC, and SEM. The shelf life of SOF-7 was found to be 32.88 months. The heamatological and histopathological data of diabetic rats showed prominent antidiabetic activity.

CONCLUSIONS

The optimised formulation showed improved dissolution, desired stability, and promising antidiabetic activity.

Development and validation of zero and first-order derivative area under curve spectrophotometric methods for the determination of entacapone in bulk material and in tablets

Aim:

The aim of this work is to establish two simple, economical, and rapid spectrophotometric methods for the quantification of entacapone in bulk material and in tablets. Further, this study is designed to validate the developed methods as per ICH guidelines.

Materials and Methods:

In Methods I and II, a stock standard solution was prepared by dissolving 10 mg of entacapone in 100 mL of 10% v/v acetonitrile to obtain a concentration of 100 μg/mL. After suitable dilution, 10 μg/mL of entacapone was prepared and scanned in the UV-visible range 500–200 nm; entacapone showed a maximum absorbance at 384.40 nm. In Method I, area under curve (AUC) of the zero-order spectrum was recorded between 348.00 and 410.20 nm. While, in Method II, zero-order spectra were derivatized into first-order, and the AUC was recorded between 386.40 and 460.20 nm. For a linearity study, series of dilutions were prepared from stock solutions.

Results:

In Method I, and II, entacapone followed linearity in the concentration range of 2–12 μg/mL and 5–30 μg/mL with (r²>0.999). The amounts of entacapone estimated by both these methods were found to be 99.24 ± 0.054 and 98.68 ± 1.04, respectively.

Conclusion:

The developed methods are simple, precise, rugged, robust, and economical. Both these methods can be used for routine analysis of entacapone from its tablet formulation.