Sodium interception by xylem parenchyma and chloride recirculation in phloem may augment exclusion in the salt tolerant Pistacia genus: context for salinity studies on tree crops

Working in tandem with root exclusion, stems may provide salt-tolerant woody perennials with some additional capacity to restrict sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) accumulation in leaves. The Pistacia genus, falling at the nexus of salt tolerance and human intervention, provided an ideal set of organisms for studying the influences of both variable root exclusion and potentially variable discontinuities at the bud union on stem processes. In three experiments covering a wide range of salt concentrations (0 to 150 mM NaCl) and tree ages (1, 2 and 10 years) as well as nine rootstock-scion combinations we show that proportional exclusion of both Na and Cl reached up to ~85% efficacy, but efficacy varied by both rootstock and budding treatment. Effective Na exclusion was augmented by significant retrieval of Na from the xylem sap, as evidenced by declines in the Na concentrations of both sap and wood tissue along the transpiration stream. However, while we observed little to no differences between the concentrations of the two ions in leaves, analogous declines in sap concentrations of Cl were not observed. We conclude that some parallel but separate mechanism must be acting on Cl to provide leaf protection from toxicity specific to this ion and suggest that this mechanism is recirculation of Cl in the phloem. The presented findings underline the importance of holistic assessments of salt tolerance in woody perennials. In particular, greater emphasis might be placed on the dynamics of salt sequestration in the significant storage volumes offered by the stems of woody perennials and on the potential for phloem discontinuity introduced with a bud/graft union.

Toxicity of sulfate and chloride to early life stages of wild rice (Zizania palustris)

Despite the importance of wild rice (Zizania palustris) in the Great Lakes region of North America, its sensitivity to sulfate is not well understood. A 21-d hydroponic experiment was performed to determine the toxicity of sulfate to wild rice seeds and seedlings. Effects of 6 sulfate concentrations ranging from 10 mg/L to 5000 mg/L and of chloride salts at equivalent conductivity were evaluated to determine whether adverse effects were attributable to sulfate or to conductivity-related stress. Sulfate treatment decreased root length, shoot length, and leaf number, and increased phytotoxic effects at concentrations of 5000 mg/L relative to a 50 mg/L control. The time to 30% mesocotyl emergence decreased at 2500 mg/L sulfate, indicating a potential stimulatory effect. Sulfate exposures of ≤ 5000 mg/L had no effect on 5 additional end points. Multiple regression analysis indicated that most observed changes could be attributed to conductivity-related stress rather than sulfate per se, with the exception of shoot length and leaf number. Chloride was more toxic than sulfate, as determined by root length and phytotoxicity. In summary, sulfate concentrations below 5000 mg/L did not adversely affect early-life stage wild rice during a 21-d period, and effects at 5000 mg/L sulfate were attributable to conductivity-related stress rather than sulfate toxicity in 2 of 4 end points.

Feasibility of irrigating pickleweed (Salicornia bigelovii. Torr) with hyper-saline drainage water

Reuse of drainage water (DW) for irrigation reduces the volume of DW requiring treatment or disposal. We conducted a greenhouse study to evaluate the performance of the halophyte Salicornia bigelovii Torr. when irrigated with hyper-saline DW and seawater (SW) treatments, ranging from 1/3 strength to full strength (18-49 dS m(-1)), in a sand-culture system. Results indicate that Salicornia grows well over the entire range of iso-osmotic SW and DW salinity treatments. Moreover, when boron (B) was added to SW treatments to concentrations equivalent to that of corresponding 1/3- and 2/3-strength DW treatments (i.e., 9 and 17 mg L(-1)), growth was not affected, and tissue B concentrations were <150 mg kg(-1) dry wt. However, when plants were irrigated with synthetic DW where B was reduced to solution culture levels (0.5-1.0 mg L(-1)), plants generally performed worse than when irrigated with actual DW high in B at the same salinity level. Evapotranspiration (ET) rates exceeded that lost from an evaporation pan from 1.5 to 2.5 times. Using a method accounting for changes in the isotopic signature of water in the reservoir due to evaporation, we estimated that high ET rates were due primarily to high transpiration rates (>78% of ET). The salt content in the tissue was very high (ash content 43-52%), but ionic composition in the shoot tissue reflected that of the treatment water used to irrigate the plants. These data indicate that hyper-saline DW, characteristic of California's San Joaquin Valley, can be used to irrigate Salicornia and substantially reduce drainage volumes.

Stable carbon isotope discrimination: an indicator of cumulative salinity and boron stress in Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Saplings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn. Clone 4544, irrigated with water of differing salinities (2 to 28 dS m-1) and boron concentrations (1 to 30 mg l-1), integrated the history of these stresses through the discrimination of stable isotopes of carbon in leaf and woody tissues. Carbon isotope discrimination (delta) was reduced primarily by salinity. Decreases in discrimination in response to boron stress were detected in the absence of salinity stress, but the decreases were significant only in leaf tissues with visible boron injury. Sapwood core samples indicated that salinity- and boron-induced reductions in delta increased with increasing tree age. Absolute values of delta varied with location of leaf or wood tissue, but relative effects of salinity on the relationship between delta and transpiration efficiency (W) were similar. In response to increasing salinity stress, relative decreases in delta paralleled relative decreases in biomass and both indices yielded similar salt tolerance model parameters. The strong correlations between delta, tree fresh weight, leaf area and W suggest that delta is a useful parameter for evaluating salt tolerance of eucalyptus