Effect of long-term treatment with trivalent chromium on erythropoietin production in HepG2 cells

Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) is sometimes taken as a long-term supplement, but its effectiveness is unclear. Recently, Cr(III) reportedly modulates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) expression. Our previous study reported that increased PPARγ after 24 h Cr(III) treatment promoted erythropoietin (EPO) production in HepG2 cells. In the current study, we analyzed 4-week Cr(III) treatment effects on PPARγ and EPO production in HepG2 cells. Long-term Cr(III) treatment resulted in significantly elevated mRNA expression levels of PPARγ and EPO compared to controls. Additionally, treatment with a PPARγ inhibitor suppressed EPO mRNA expression. Increased EPO mRNA expression due to stimulation with hypoxia or cobalt was unaffected by long-term Cr(III) treatment. Administration of lipopolysaccharide and pyocyanin which causes oxidative stress, promoted EPO production, but this effect was attenuated in cells treated with Cr(III). Long-term Cr(III) treatment increased hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α and 2α mRNA expression and protein levels. Increased PPARγ, induced by long-term Cr(III) treatment, suppressed sirtuin1 (SIRT1) mRNA expression and increased EPO mRNA expression, suggesting that increased PPARγ attenuated the suppressive effect of SIRT1 on HIF. These results suggest that the sustained increase in PPARγ during long-term Cr(III) treatment maintains increased EPO production through a mechanism different from that observed under hypoxia.

Effect of trivalent chromium on erythropoietin production and the prevention of insulin resistance in HepG2 cells

In erythropoietin (EPO)-producing HepG2 cells, we investigated the effect of trivalent chromium (Cr) on the promotion of EPO production and the induction of insulin resistance. Cr increased hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α protein, EPO mRNA expression and EPO protein levels in HepG2 cells. The effect of Cr on EPO production was inhibited by inhibition of proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Insulin resistance was induced by culturing with insulin resistance induction medium supplemented with palmitic acid for 24 h. When Cr was added to the medium, the increase in glucose-6-phosphatase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 mRNA expression levels and the decrease in the ratio of phosphorylated Akt to Akt protein were suppressed, and the induction of insulin resistance prevented. When a PPARγ inhibitor or siPPARγ was added together with Cr, the inhibitory effect of Cr on the induction of insulin resistance disappeared. In addition, pretreatment with siEPO suppressed the increase in EPO mRNA expression, and the inhibitory effect on the induction of insulin resistance due to the addition of Cr was significantly reduced. These results suggest that the inhibition of insulin resistance induction by Cr in HepG2 cells involves the promotion of EPO production mediated by PPARγ, in addition to other PPARγ-mediated activities.