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Raghavan S, Warsavage T, Liu WG, Raffle K, Josey K, Saxon DR, Phillips LS, Caplan L, Reusch JEB. Trends in Timing of and Glycemia at Initiation of Second-line Type 2 Diabetes Treatment in U.S. Adults. Diabetes Care 2022; 45:1335-1345. [PMID: 35344584 PMCID: PMC9210868 DOI: 10.2337/dc21-2492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Therapeutic inertia threatens the potential long-term benefits of achieving early glycemic control after type 2 diabetes diagnosis. We evaluated temporal trends in second-line diabetes medication initiation among individuals initially treated with metformin. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS We included data from 199,042 adults with type 2 diabetes in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs health care system initially treated with metformin monotherapy from 2005 to 2013. We used multivariable Cox proportional hazards and linear regression to estimate associations of year of metformin monotherapy initiation with time to second-line diabetes treatment over 5 years of follow-up (primary outcome) and with hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) at the time of second-line diabetes treatment initiation (secondary outcome). RESULTS The cumulative 5-year incidence of second-line medication initiation declined from 47% among metformin initiators in 2005 to 36% in 2013 counterparts (P < 0.0001) despite a gradual increase in mean HbA1c at the end of follow-up (from 6.94 ± 1.28% to 7.09 ± 1.42%, Ptrend < 0.0001). In comparisons with metformin monotherapy initiators in 2005, adjusted hazard ratios for 5-year initiation of second-line diabetes treatment ranged from 0.90 (95% CI 0.87, 0.92) for 2006 metformin initiators to 0.68 (0.66, 0.70) for 2013 counterparts. Among those receiving second-line treatment within 5 years of metformin initiation, HbA1c at second-line medication initiation increased from 7.74 ± 1.66% in 2005 metformin initiators to 8.55 ± 1.92% in 2013 counterparts (Ptrend < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS We observed progressive delays in diabetes treatment intensification consistent with therapeutic inertia. Process-of-care interventions early in the diabetes disease course may be needed to reverse adverse temporal trends in diabetes care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sridharan Raghavan
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO.,Division of Biomedical Informatics and Personalized Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO.,Colorado Cardiovascular Outcomes Research Consortium, Aurora, CO
| | - Theodore Warsavage
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO.,Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, Aurora, CO
| | - Wenhui G Liu
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO
| | - Katherine Raffle
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO
| | - Kevin Josey
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO.,Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA
| | - David R Saxon
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO.,Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Lawrence S Phillips
- Medicine Service, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA.,Department of Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Liron Caplan
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO.,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Jane E B Reusch
- Medicine Service, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Aurora, CO.,Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Diabetes, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
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2
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Gilmartin HM, Warsavage T, Hines A, Leonard C, Kelley L, Wills A, Gaskin D, Ujano-De Motta L, Connelly B, Plomondon ME, Yang F, Kaboli P, Burke RE, Jones CD. Effectiveness of the rural transitions nurse program for Veterans: A multicenter implementation study. J Hosp Med 2022; 17:149-157. [PMID: 35504490 DOI: 10.1002/jhm.12802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Veterans are often transferred from rural areas to urban VA Medical Centers for care. The transition from hospital to home is vulnerable to postdischarge adverse events. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effectiveness of the rural Transitions Nurse Program (TNP). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS National hybrid-effectiveness-implementation study, within site propensity-matched cohort in 11 urban VA hospitals. 3001 Veterans were enrolled in TNP from April 2017 to September 2019, and 6002 matched controls. INTERVENTION AND OUTCOMES The intervention was led by a transitions nurse who assessed discharge readiness, provided postdischarge communication with primary care providers (PCPs), and called the Veteran within 72 h of discharge home to assess needs, and encourage follow-up appointment attendance. Controls received usual care. The primary outcomes were PCP visits within 14 days of discharge and all-cause 30-day readmissions. Secondary outcomes were 30-day emergency department (ED) visits and 30-day mortality. Patients were matched by length of stay, prior hospitalizations and PCP visits, urban/rural status, and 32 Elixhauser comorbidities. RESULTS The 3001 Veterans enrolled in TNP were more likely to see their PCP within 14 days of discharge than 6002 matched controls (odds ratio = 2.24, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.05-2.45). TNP enrollment was not associated with reduced 30-day ED visits or readmissions but was associated with reduced 30-day mortality (hazard ratio = 0.33, 95% CI = 0.21-0.53). PCP and ED visits did not have a significant mediating effect on outcomes. The observational design, potential selection bias, and unmeasurable confounders limit causal inference. CONCLUSIONS TNP was associated with increased postdischarge follow-up and a mortality reduction. Further investigation to understand the reduction in mortality is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Gilmartin
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Department of Health Systems, Management and Policy, School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Theodore Warsavage
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Anne Hines
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Chelsea Leonard
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Lynette Kelley
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Ashlea Wills
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - David Gaskin
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Lexus Ujano-De Motta
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Brigid Connelly
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Mary E Plomondon
- Clinical Assessment Reporting and Tracking Program, Office of Quality and Patient Safety, Veterans' Health Administration, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Fan Yang
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, School of Public Health, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Peter Kaboli
- Research Department, Veterans Rural Health Resource Center-Iowa City, VA Office of Rural Health, and Center for Access and Delivery Research and Evaluation (CADRE) at the Iowa City VA Healthcare System, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | - Robert E Burke
- Research Department, Center for Health Equity Research and Promotion, Corporal Crescenz Veterans Health Administration Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
- Hospital Medicine Section - Division of General Internal Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Christine D Jones
- Research Department, Denver/Seattle Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, VHA Eastern Colorado Healthcare System, Aurora, Colorado, USA
- Division of Hospital Medicine, Department of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, University of Colorado, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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3
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Connelly B, Leonard C, Gaskin D, Warsavage T, Gilmartin H. Increasing enrolment in a national VA transitions of care programme: a pre-post evaluation of a data dashboard and nudge-based intervention. BMJ Health Care Inform 2021; 28:bmjhci-2021-100416. [PMID: 34764197 PMCID: PMC8587340 DOI: 10.1136/bmjhci-2021-100416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The rural transitions nurse programme (TNP) is a care coordination intervention for high-risk veterans. An interactive dashboard was used to provide real-time performance metrics to sites as an audit and feedback tool. One-year post implementation, enrolment goals were not met. Nudge emails were introduced to increase TNP veteran enrolment. This study evaluated whether veteran enrolment increased when feedback occurred through a dashboard plus weekly nudge email versus dashboard alone. Setting/population This observational study included veterans who were hospitalised and discharged from four Veterans Health Administration hospitals participating in TNP. Methods Veteran enrolment counts between the dashboard phase and dashboard plus weekly nudge email phase were compared. Nudge emails included run charts of enrolment data. The difference of means for weekly enrolment between the two phases were calculated. After 3 months of nudge emails, a survey assessing TNP transitions nurse and physician champion perceptions of the nudge emails was distributed. Results The average enrolment for the four TNP sites during the ~20-month dashboard only phase was 4.23 veterans/week. The average during the 3-month dashboard plus nudge email phase was 4.21 veterans/week. The difference in means was −0.03 (p=0.73). Adjusting for time trends had no further effect. Four nurses responded to the survey. Two nurses reported neutral and two reported positive perceptions of the nudge emails. Conclusion Drawing attention to metrics, through nudge emails, maintained, but did not increase TNP veteran discharges compared to dashboard feedback alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigid Connelly
- Denver Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Chelsea Leonard
- Denver Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - David Gaskin
- Denver Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Theodore Warsavage
- Denver Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Heather Gilmartin
- Denver Center of Innovation for Veteran-Centered and Value-Driven Care, Aurora, CO, USA .,Department of Health Systems, Management and Policy and Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, University of Colorado School of Public Health, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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4
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McGuinn E, Warsavage T, Plomondon ME, Valle JA, Ho PM, Waldo SW. Association of Ischemic Evaluation and Clinical Outcomes Among Patients Admitted With New-Onset Heart Failure. J Am Heart Assoc 2021; 10:e019452. [PMID: 33586468 PMCID: PMC8174286 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.120.019452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Background The significant morbidity associated with systolic heart failure makes it imperative to identify patients with a reversible cause. We thus sought to evaluate the proportion of patients who received an ischemic evaluation after a hospitalization for new‐onset systolic heart failure. Methods and Results Patients admitted with a new diagnosis of heart failure and a reduction in left ventricular ejection fraction (≤40%) were identified in the VA Healthcare System from January 2006 to August 2017. Among those who survived 90 days without a readmission, we evaluated the proportion of patients who underwent an ischemic evaluation. We identified 9625 patients who were admitted with a new diagnosis of systolic heart failure with a concomitant reduction in ejection fraction. A minority of patients (3859, 40%) underwent an ischemic evaluation, with significant variation across high‐performing (90th percentile) and low‐performing (10th percentile) sites (odds ratio, 3.79; 95% CI, 2.90–4.31). Patients who underwent an evaluation were more likely to be treated with angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitors (75% versus 64%, P<0.001) or beta blockers (92% versus 82%, P<0.001) and subsequently undergo percutaneous (8% versus 0%, P<0.001) or surgical (2% versus 0%, P<0.001) revascularization. Patients with an ischemic evaluation also had a significantly lower adjusted hazard of all‐cause mortality (hazard ratio, 0.54; 95% CI, 0.47–0.61) compared with those without an evaluation. Conclusions Ischemic evaluations are underutilized in patients admitted with heart failure and a new reduction in left ventricular systolic function. A focused intervention to increase guideline‐concordant care could lead to an improvement in clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin McGuinn
- Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center Aurora CO.,University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora CO
| | | | - Mary E Plomondon
- Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center Aurora CO.,University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora CO.,CART Program VHA Office of Quality and Patient Safety Washington DC
| | - Javier A Valle
- Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center Aurora CO.,University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora CO.,CART Program VHA Office of Quality and Patient Safety Washington DC
| | - P Michael Ho
- Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center Aurora CO.,University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora CO
| | - Stephen W Waldo
- Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center Aurora CO.,University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora CO.,CART Program VHA Office of Quality and Patient Safety Washington DC
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Barrett C, Warsavage T, Kovach C, McGuinn E, Plomondon ME, Armstrong EJ, Waldo SW. Comparison of rotational and orbital atherectomy for the treatment of calcific coronary lesions: Insights from the
VA
clinical assessment reporting and tracking (
CART
) program. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2020; 97:E219-E226. [DOI: 10.1002/ccd.28971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Barrett
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine University of Colorado Aurora Colorado USA
| | - Theodore Warsavage
- Department of Medicine VA Eastern Colorado Health Care System Aurora Colorado USA
| | - Christopher Kovach
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine University of Colorado Aurora Colorado USA
| | - Erin McGuinn
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine University of Colorado Aurora Colorado USA
| | - Mary E. Plomondon
- Department of Medicine VA Eastern Colorado Health Care System Aurora Colorado USA
| | - Ehrin J. Armstrong
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine University of Colorado Aurora Colorado USA
| | - Stephen W. Waldo
- Department of Medicine VA Eastern Colorado Health Care System Aurora Colorado USA
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Warsavage T, Xing F, Barón AE, Feser WJ, Hirsch E, Miller YE, Malkoski S, Wolf HJ, Wilson DO, Ghosh D. Quantifying the incremental value of deep learning: Application to lung nodule detection. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0231468. [PMID: 32287288 PMCID: PMC7156089 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0231468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a case study for implementing a machine learning algorithm with an incremental value framework in the domain of lung cancer research. Machine learning methods have often been shown to be competitive with prediction models in some domains; however, implementation of these methods is in early development. Often these methods are only directly compared to existing methods; here we present a framework for assessing the value of a machine learning model by assessing the incremental value. We developed a machine learning model to identify and classify lung nodules and assessed the incremental value added to existing risk prediction models. Multiple external datasets were used for validation. We found that our image model, trained on a dataset from The Cancer Imaging Archive (TCIA), improves upon existing models that are restricted to patient characteristics, but it was inconclusive about whether it improves on models that consider nodule features. Another interesting finding is the variable performance on different datasets, suggesting population generalization with machine learning models may be more challenging than is often considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodore Warsavage
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Fuyong Xing
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Anna E. Barón
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - William J. Feser
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Erin Hirsch
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - York E. Miller
- Department of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
- Rocky Mountain Regional Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Stephen Malkoski
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - Holly J. Wolf
- Department of Community and Behavioral Health, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
| | - David O. Wilson
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States of America
| | - Debashis Ghosh
- Department of Biostatistics and Informatics, Colorado School of Public Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States of America
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7
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Vashi AA, Urech T, Carr B, Greene L, Warsavage T, Hsia R, Asch SM. Identification of Emergency Care-Sensitive Conditions and Characteristics of Emergency Department Utilization. JAMA Netw Open 2019; 2:e198642. [PMID: 31390036 PMCID: PMC6686774 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.8642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Monitoring emergency care quality requires understanding which conditions benefit most from timely, quality emergency care. OBJECTIVES To identify a set of emergency care-sensitive conditions (ECSCs) that are treated in most emergency departments (EDs), are associated with a spectrum of adult age groups, and represent common reasons for seeking emergency care and to provide benchmark national estimates of ECSC acute care utilization. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS A modified Delphi method was used to identify ECSCs. In a cross-sectional analysis, ECSC-associated visits by adults (aged ≥18 years) were identified based on International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification diagnosis codes and analyzed with nationally representative data from the 2016 US Nationwide Emergency Department Sample. Data analysis was conducted from January 2018 to December 2018. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Identification of ECSCs and ECSC-associated ED utilization patterns, length of stay, and charges. RESULTS An expert panel rated 51 condition groups as emergency care sensitive. Emergency care-sensitive conditions represented 16 033 359 of 114 323 044 ED visits (14.0%) in 2016. On average, 8 535 261 of 17 886 220 ED admissions (47.7%) were attributed to ECSCs. The most common ECSC ED visits were for sepsis (1 716 004 [10.7%]), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (1 273 319 [7.9%]), pneumonia (1 263 971 [7.9%]), asthma (970 829 [6.1%]), and heart failure (911 602 [5.7%]) but varied by age group. Median (interquartile range) length of stay for ECSC ED admissions was longer than non-ECSC ED admissions (3.2 [1.7-5.8] days vs 2.7 [1.4-4.9] days; P < .001). In 2016, median (interquartile range) ED charges per visit for ECSCs were $2736 ($1684-$4605) compared with $2179 ($1118-$4359) per visit for non-ECSC ED visits (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE This comprehensive list of ECSCs can be used to guide indicator development for pre-ED, intra-ED, and post-ED care and overall assessment of the adult, non-mental health, acute care system. Health care utilization and costs among patients with ECSCs are substantial and warrant future study of validation, variations in care, and outcomes associated with ECSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita A. Vashi
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California
- Center for Innovation to Implementation, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California
| | - Tracy Urech
- Center for Innovation to Implementation, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California
| | - Brendan Carr
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Liberty Greene
- Center for Innovation to Implementation, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California
- Division of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Theodore Warsavage
- Denver Center of Innovation for Veteran Centered and Value Driven Care, Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center, Denver, Colorado
| | - Renee Hsia
- Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies, Department of Emergency Medicine, University of California, San Francisco
| | - Steven M. Asch
- Center for Innovation to Implementation, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California
- Division of Primary Care and Population Health, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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