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Weiler S, Rahmati V, Isstas M, Wutke J, Stark AW, Franke C, Graf J, Geis C, Witte OW, Hübener M, Bolz J, Margrie TW, Holthoff K, Teichert M. A primary sensory cortical interareal feedforward inhibitory circuit for tacto-visual integration. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3081. [PMID: 38594279 PMCID: PMC11003985 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47459-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Tactile sensation and vision are often both utilized for the exploration of objects that are within reach though it is not known whether or how these two distinct sensory systems combine such information. Here in mice, we used a combination of stereo photogrammetry for 3D reconstruction of the whisker array, brain-wide anatomical tracing and functional connectivity analysis to explore the possibility of tacto-visual convergence in sensory space and within the circuitry of the primary visual cortex (VISp). Strikingly, we find that stimulation of the contralateral whisker array suppresses visually evoked activity in a tacto-visual sub-region of VISp whose visual space representation closely overlaps with the whisker search space. This suppression is mediated by local fast-spiking interneurons that receive a direct cortico-cortical input predominantly from layer 6 neurons located in the posterior primary somatosensory barrel cortex (SSp-bfd). These data demonstrate functional convergence within and between two primary sensory cortical areas for multisensory object detection and recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Weiler
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neuronal Circuits and Behaviour, University College London, 25 Howland Street, London, W1T 4JG, UK
| | - Vahid Rahmati
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Marcel Isstas
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute of General Zoology and Animal Physiology, Erbertstraße 1, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Johann Wutke
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas Walter Stark
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute of Applied Optics and Biophysics, Fröbelstieg 1, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Franke
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute of Applied Optics and Biophysics, Fröbelstieg 1, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena Center for Soft Matter, Philosophenweg 7, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Abbe Center of Photonics, Albert-Einstein-Straße 6, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Graf
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Geis
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Otto W Witte
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Mark Hübener
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Jürgen Bolz
- Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Institute of General Zoology and Animal Physiology, Erbertstraße 1, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Troy W Margrie
- Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neuronal Circuits and Behaviour, University College London, 25 Howland Street, London, W1T 4JG, UK
| | - Knut Holthoff
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Manuel Teichert
- Jena University Hospital, Department of Neurology, Am Klinikum 1, 07747, Jena, Germany.
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Ceanga M, Rahmati V, Haselmann H, Schmidl L, Hunter D, Brauer AK, Liebscher S, Kreye J, Prüss H, Groc L, Hallermann S, Dalmau J, Ori A, Heckmann M, Geis C. Human NMDAR autoantibodies disrupt excitatory-inhibitory balance, leading to hippocampal network hypersynchrony. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113166. [PMID: 37768823 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Anti-NMDA receptor autoantibodies (NMDAR-Abs) in patients with NMDAR encephalitis cause severe disease symptoms resembling psychosis and cause cognitive dysfunction. After passive transfer of patients' cerebrospinal fluid or human monoclonal anti-GluN1-autoantibodies in mice, we find a disrupted excitatory-inhibitory balance resulting from CA1 neuronal hypoexcitability, reduced AMPA receptor (AMPAR) signaling, and faster synaptic inhibition in acute hippocampal slices. Functional alterations are also reflected in widespread remodeling of the hippocampal proteome, including changes in glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission. NMDAR-Abs amplify network γ oscillations and disrupt θ-γ coupling. A data-informed network model reveals that lower AMPAR strength and faster GABAA receptor current kinetics chiefly account for these abnormal oscillations. As predicted in silico and evidenced ex vivo, positive allosteric modulation of AMPARs alleviates aberrant γ activity, reinforcing the causative effects of the excitatory-inhibitory imbalance. Collectively, NMDAR-Ab-induced aberrant synaptic, cellular, and network dynamics provide conceptual insights into NMDAR-Ab-mediated pathomechanisms and reveal promising therapeutic targets that merit future in vivo validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihai Ceanga
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Vahid Rahmati
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Holger Haselmann
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Lars Schmidl
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Daniel Hunter
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, UMR 5297, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Anna-Katherina Brauer
- Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Martinsried, Germany; Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Martinsried, Germany
| | - Sabine Liebscher
- Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Martinsried, Germany; Biomedical Center, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, Martinsried, Germany; Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Jakob Kreye
- Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Department of Pediatric Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Harald Prüss
- Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laurent Groc
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, UMR 5297, 33000 Bordeaux, France
| | - Stefan Hallermann
- Carl Ludwig Institute for Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Josep Dalmau
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA) and IDIBAPS-Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alessandro Ori
- Leibniz Institute on Aging - Fritz Lipmann Institute (FLI), 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Manfred Heckmann
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology, University of Würzburg, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Geis
- Section of Translational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany.
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Sell J, Rahmati V, Kempfer M, Irani SR, Ritzau-Jost A, Hallermann S, Geis C. Comparative Effects of Domain-Specific Human Monoclonal Antibodies Against LGI1 on Neuronal Excitability. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm 2023; 10:10/3/e200096. [PMID: 37028941 PMCID: PMC10099296 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000200096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Autoantibodies to leucine-rich glioma inactivated protein 1 (LGI1) cause an autoimmune limbic encephalitis with frequent focal seizures and anterograde memory dysfunction. LGI1 is a neuronal secreted linker protein with 2 functional domains: the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) and epitempin (EPTP) regions. LGI1 autoantibodies are known to interfere with presynaptic function and neuronal excitability; however, their epitope-specific mechanisms are incompletely understood. METHODS We used patient-derived monoclonal autoantibodies (mAbs), which target either LRR or EPTP domains of LGI1 to investigate long-term antibody-induced alteration of neuronal function. LRR- and EPTP-specific effects were evaluated by patch-clamp recordings in cultured hippocampal neurons and compared with biophysical neuron modeling. Kv1.1 channel clustering at the axon initial segment (AIS) was quantified by immunocytochemistry and structured illumination microscopy techniques. RESULTS Both EPTP and LRR domain-specific mAbs decreased the latency of first somatic action potential firing. However, only the LRR-specific mAbs increased the number of action potential firing together with enhanced initial instantaneous frequency and promoted spike-frequency adaptation, which were less pronounced after the EPTP mAb. This also led to an effective reduction in the slope of ramp-like depolarization in the subthreshold response, suggesting Kv1 channel dysfunction. A biophysical model of a hippocampal neuron corroborated experimental results and suggests that an isolated reduction of the conductance of Kv1-mediated K+ currents largely accounts for the antibody-induced alterations in the initial firing phase and spike-frequency adaptation. Furthermore, Kv1.1 channel density was spatially redistributed from the distal toward the proximal site of AIS under LRR mAb treatment and, to a lesser extant, under EPTP mAb. DISCUSSION These findings indicate an epitope-specific pathophysiology of LGI1 autoantibodies. The pronounced neuronal hyperexcitability and SFA together with dropped slope of ramp-like depolarization after LRR-targeted interference suggest disruption of LGI1-dependent clustering of K+ channel complexes. Moreover, considering the effective triggering of action potentials at the distal AIS, the altered spatial distribution of Kv1.1 channel density may contribute to these effects through impairing neuronal control of action potential initiation and synaptic integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefine Sell
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Vahid Rahmati
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Marin Kempfer
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Sarosh R Irani
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Andreas Ritzau-Jost
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Stefan Hallermann
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany
| | - Christian Geis
- From the Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.S., V.R., M.K., C.G.), Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, Germany; Oxford Autoimmune Neurology Group (S.R.I.), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, UK; Department of Neurology (S.R.I.), Oxford University Hospitals, UK; and Carl-Ludwig-Institute of Physiology (A.R.-J., S.H.), Faculty of Medicine, Leipzig University, Germany.
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Graf J, Rahmati V, Majoros M, Witte OW, Geis C, Kiebel SJ, Holthoff K, Kirmse K. Network instability dynamics drive a transient bursting period in the developing hippocampus in vivo. eLife 2022; 11:82756. [PMID: 36534089 PMCID: PMC9762703 DOI: 10.7554/elife.82756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Spontaneous correlated activity is a universal hallmark of immature neural circuits. However, the cellular dynamics and intrinsic mechanisms underlying network burstiness in the intact developing brain are largely unknown. Here, we use two-photon Ca2+ imaging to comprehensively map the developmental trajectories of spontaneous network activity in the hippocampal area CA1 of mice in vivo. We unexpectedly find that network burstiness peaks after the developmental emergence of effective synaptic inhibition in the second postnatal week. We demonstrate that the enhanced network burstiness reflects an increased functional coupling of individual neurons to local population activity. However, pairwise neuronal correlations are low, and network bursts (NBs) recruit CA1 pyramidal cells in a virtually random manner. Using a dynamic systems modeling approach, we reconcile these experimental findings and identify network bi-stability as a potential regime underlying network burstiness at this age. Our analyses reveal an important role of synaptic input characteristics and network instability dynamics for NB generation. Collectively, our data suggest a mechanism, whereby developing CA1 performs extensive input-discrimination learning prior to the onset of environmental exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Graf
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany
| | - Vahid Rahmati
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany,Section Translational Neuroimmunology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany,Department of Psychology, Technical University DresdenDresdenGermany
| | - Myrtill Majoros
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany
| | - Otto W Witte
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany
| | - Christian Geis
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany,Section Translational Neuroimmunology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany
| | - Stefan J Kiebel
- Department of Psychology, Technical University DresdenDresdenGermany
| | - Knut Holthoff
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany
| | - Knut Kirmse
- Department of Neurology, Jena University HospitalJenaGermany,Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology, University of WürzburgWürzburgGermany
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Flossmann T, Kaas T, Rahmati V, Kiebel SJ, Witte OW, Holthoff K, Kirmse K. Somatostatin Interneurons Promote Neuronal Synchrony in the Neonatal Hippocampus. Cell Rep 2020; 26:3173-3182.e5. [PMID: 30893591 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Synchronized activity is a universal characteristic of immature neural circuits that is essential for their developmental refinement and strongly depends on GABAergic neurotransmission. A major subpopulation of GABA-releasing interneurons (INs) expresses somatostatin (SOM) and proved critical for rhythm generation in adulthood. Here, we report a mechanism whereby SOM INs promote neuronal synchrony in the neonatal CA1 region. Combining imaging and electrophysiological approaches, we demonstrate that SOM INs and pyramidal cells (PCs) coactivate during spontaneous activity. Bidirectional optogenetic manipulations reveal excitatory GABAergic outputs to PCs that evoke correlated network events in an NKCC1-dependent manner and contribute to spontaneous synchrony. Using a dynamic systems modeling approach, we show that SOM INs affect network dynamics through a modulation of network instability and amplification threshold. Our study identifies a network function of SOM INs with implications for the activity-dependent construction of developing brain circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Flossmann
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Thomas Kaas
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Vahid Rahmati
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan J Kiebel
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany
| | - Otto W Witte
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Knut Holthoff
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Knut Kirmse
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany.
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Abstract
Calcium imaging provides an indirect observation of the underlying neural dynamics and enables the functional analysis of neuronal populations. However, the recorded fluorescence traces are temporally smeared, thus making the reconstruction of exact spiking activity challenging. Most of the established methods to tackle this issue are limited in dealing with issues such as the variability in the kinetics of fluorescence transients, fast processing of long-term data, high firing rates, and measurement noise. We propose a novel, heuristic reconstruction method to overcome these limitations. By using both synthetic and experimental data, we demonstrate the four main features of this method: 1) it accurately reconstructs both isolated spikes and within-burst spikes, and the spike count per fluorescence transient, from a given noisy fluorescence trace; 2) it performs the reconstruction of a trace extracted from 1,000,000 frames in less than 2 s; 3) it adapts to transients with different rise and decay kinetics or amplitudes, both within and across single neurons; and 4) it has only one key parameter, which we will show can be set in a nearly automatic way to an approximately optimal value. Furthermore, we demonstrate the ability of the method to effectively correct for fast and rather complex, slowly varying drifts as frequently observed in in vivo data. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Reconstruction of spiking activities from calcium imaging data remains challenging. Most of the established reconstruction methods not only have limitations in adapting to systematic variations in the data and fast processing of large amounts of data, but their results also depend on the user's experience. To overcome these limitations, we present a novel, heuristic model-free-type method that enables an ultra-fast, accurate, near-automatic reconstruction from data recorded under a wide range of experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Rahmati
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden , Dresden , Germany
| | - Knut Kirmse
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena , Jena , Germany
| | - Knut Holthoff
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena , Jena , Germany
| | - Stefan J Kiebel
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden , Dresden , Germany
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Rahmati V, Kirmse K, Holthoff K, Schwabe L, Kiebel SJ. Developmental Emergence of Sparse Coding: A Dynamic Systems Approach. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13015. [PMID: 29026183 PMCID: PMC5638906 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13468-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
During neocortical development, network activity undergoes a dramatic transition from largely synchronized, so-called cluster activity, to a relatively sparse pattern around the time of eye-opening in rodents. Biophysical mechanisms underlying this sparsification phenomenon remain poorly understood. Here, we present a dynamic systems modeling study of a developing neural network that provides the first mechanistic insights into sparsification. We find that the rest state of immature networks is strongly affected by the dynamics of a transient, unstable state hidden in their firing activities, allowing these networks to either be silent or generate large cluster activity. We address how, and which, specific developmental changes in neuronal and synaptic parameters drive sparsification. We also reveal how these changes refine the information processing capabilities of an in vivo developing network, mainly by showing a developmental reduction in the instability of network’s firing activity, an effective availability of inhibition-stabilized states, and an emergence of spontaneous attractors and state transition mechanisms. Furthermore, we demonstrate the key role of GABAergic transmission and depressing glutamatergic synapses in governing the spatiotemporal evolution of cluster activity. These results, by providing a strong link between experimental observations and model behavior, suggest how adult sparse coding networks may emerge developmentally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Rahmati
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Knut Kirmse
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Knut Holthoff
- Hans-Berger Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, 07747, Jena, Germany
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering, University of Rostock, 18059, Rostock, Germany
| | - Stefan J Kiebel
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187, Dresden, Germany
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