1
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Valtonen S, Vuorinen E, Eskonen V, Malakoutikhah M, Kopra K, Härmä H. Sensitive, homogeneous, and label-free protein-probe assay for antibody aggregation and thermal stability studies. MAbs 2021; 13:1955810. [PMID: 34455913 PMCID: PMC8409793 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2021.1955810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein aggregation is a spontaneous process affected by multiple external and internal properties, such as buffer composition and storage temperature. Aggregation of protein-based drugs can endanger patient safety due, for example, to increased immunogenicity. Aggregation can also inactivate protein drugs and prevent target engagement, and thus regulatory requirements are strict regarding drug stability monitoring during manufacturing and storage. Many of the current technologies for aggregation monitoring are time- and material-consuming and require specific instruments and expertise. These types of assays are not only expensive, but also unsuitable for larger sample panels. Here we report a label-free time-resolved luminescence-based method using an external Eu3+-conjugated probe for the simple and fast detection of protein stability and aggregation. We focused on monitoring the properties of IgG, which is a common format for biological drugs. The Protein-Probe assay enables IgG aggregation detection with a simple single-well mix-and-measure assay performed at room temperature. Further information can be obtained in a thermal ramping, where IgG thermal stability is monitored. We showed that with the Protein-Probe, trastuzumab aggregation was detected already after 18 hours of storage at 60°C, 4 to 8 days earlier compared to SYPRO Orange- and UV250-based assays, respectively. The ultra-high sensitivity of less than 0.1% IgG aggregates enables the Protein-Probe to reduce assay time and material consumption compared to existing techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salla Valtonen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | | | - Ville Eskonen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | | | - Kari Kopra
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Härmä
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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2
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Valtonen S, Vuorinen E, Kariniemi T, Eskonen V, Le Quesne J, Bushell M, Härmä H, Kopra K. Nanomolar Protein-Protein Interaction Monitoring with a Label-Free Protein-Probe Technique. Anal Chem 2020; 92:15781-15788. [PMID: 33237744 PMCID: PMC7745204 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are an essential part of correct cellular functionality, making them increasingly interesting drug targets. While Förster resonance energy transfer-based methods have traditionally been widely used for PPI studies, label-free techniques have recently drawn significant attention. These methods are ideal for studying PPIs, most importantly as there is no need for labeling of either interaction partner, reducing potential interferences and overall costs. Already, several different label-free methods are available, such as differential scanning calorimetry and surface plasmon resonance, but these biophysical methods suffer from low to medium throughput, which reduces suitability for high-throughput screening (HTS) of PPI inhibitors. Differential scanning fluorimetry, utilizing external fluorescent probes, is an HTS compatible technique, but high protein concentration is needed for experiments. To improve the current concepts, we have developed a method based on time-resolved luminescence, enabling PPI monitoring even at low nanomolar protein concentrations. This method, called the protein probe technique, is based on a peptide conjugated with Eu3+ chelate, and it has already been applied to monitor protein structural changes and small molecule interactions at elevated temperatures. Here, the applicability of the protein probe technique was demonstrated by monitoring single-protein pairing and multiprotein complexes at room and elevated temperatures. The concept functionality was proven by using both artificial and multiple natural protein pairs, such as KRAS and eIF4A together with their binding partners, and C-reactive protein in a complex with its antibody.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salla Valtonen
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemistry of Drug Development, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Emmiliisa Vuorinen
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemistry of Drug Development, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Taru Kariniemi
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemistry of Drug Development, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Eskonen
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemistry of Drug Development, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - John Le Quesne
- University
of Cambridge, MRC Toxicology Unit, Hodgkin Building, Lancaster Road, Leicester LE1 7HB, U.K.
| | - Martin Bushell
- Cancer
Research U.K. Beatson Institute, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1BD, U.K.
- Institute
of Cancer Sciences, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Switchback Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, U.K.
| | - Harri Härmä
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemistry of Drug Development, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Kari Kopra
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemistry of Drug Development, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
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3
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Eskonen V, Tong-Ochoa N, Mattsson L, Miettinen M, Lastusaari M, Pulliainen AT, Kopra K, Härmä H. Single-Peptide TR-FRET Detection Platform for Cysteine-Specific Post-Translational Modifications. Anal Chem 2020; 92:13202-13210. [PMID: 32872778 PMCID: PMC7735653 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c02370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
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Post-translational
modifications (PTMs) are one of the most important
regulatory mechanisms in cells, and they play key roles in cell signaling
both in health and disease. PTM catalyzing enzymes have become significant
drug targets, and therefore, tremendous interest has been focused
on the development of broad-scale assays to monitor several different
PTMs with a single detection platform. Most of the current methodologies
suffer from low throughput or rely on antibody recognition, increasing
the assay costs, and decreasing the multifunctionality of the assay.
Thus, we have developed a sensitive time-resolved Förster resonance
energy transfer (TR-FRET) detection method for PTMs of cysteine residues
using a single-peptide approach performed in a 384-well format. In
the developed assay, the enzyme-specific biotinylated substrate peptide
is post-translationally modified at the cysteine residue, preventing
the subsequent thiol coupling with a reactive AlexaFluor 680 acceptor
dye. In the absence of enzymatic activity, increase in the TR-FRET
signal between the biotin-bound Eu(III)-labeled streptavidin donor
and the cysteine-coupled AlexaFluor 680 acceptor dye is observed.
We demonstrate the detection concept with cysteine modifying S-nitrosylation
and ADP-ribosylation reactions using a chemical nitric oxide donor
S-nitrosoglutathione and enzymatic ADP-ribosyltransferase PtxS1-subunit
of pertussis toxin, respectively. As a proof of concept, three peptide
substrates derived from the small GTPase K-Ras and the inhibitory
α-subunit of the heterotrimeric G-protein Gαi showed expected
functionality in both chemical and enzymatic assays. Measurements
yielded signal-to-background ratios of 28.7, 33.0, and 8.7 between
the modified and the nonmodified substrates for the three peptides
in the S-nitrosylation assay, 5.8 in the NAD+ hydrolysis
assay, and 6.8 in the enzymatic ADP-ribosyltransferase inhibitor dose–response
assay. The developed antibody-free assay for cysteine-modifying enzymes
provides a detection platform with low nanomolar peptide substrate
consumption, and the assay is potentially applicable to investigate
various cysteine-modifying enzymes in a high throughput compatible
format.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ville Eskonen
- Chemistry of Drug Development, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Natalia Tong-Ochoa
- Chemistry of Drug Development, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Leena Mattsson
- Chemistry of Drug Development, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Moona Miettinen
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Mika Lastusaari
- Inorganic Materials Chemistry Research Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Arto T Pulliainen
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Kari Kopra
- Chemistry of Drug Development, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Härmä
- Chemistry of Drug Development, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
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4
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Kopra K, Vuorinen E, Abreu-Blanco M, Wang Q, Eskonen V, Gillette W, Pulliainen AT, Holderfield M, Härmä H. Homogeneous Dual-Parametric-Coupled Assay for Simultaneous Nucleotide Exchange and KRAS/RAF-RBD Interaction Monitoring. Anal Chem 2020; 92:4971-4979. [PMID: 32106676 PMCID: PMC7143314 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have developed a rapid and sensitive single-well dual-parametric method introduced in linked RAS nucleotide exchange and RAS/RAF-RBD interaction assays. RAS mutations are frequent drivers of multiple different human cancers, but the development of therapeutic strategies has been challenging. Traditionally, efforts to disrupt the RAS function have focused on nucleotide exchange inhibitors, GTP-RAS interaction inhibitors, and activators increasing GTPase activity of mutant RAS proteins. As the amount of biological knowledge grows, targeted biochemical assays enabling high-throughput screening have become increasingly interesting. We have previously introduced a homogeneous quenching resonance energy transfer (QRET) assay for nucleotide binding studies with RAS and heterotrimeric G proteins. Here, we introduce a novel homogeneous signaling technique called QTR-FRET, which combine QRET technology and time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET). The dual-parametric QTR-FRET technique enables the linking of guanine nucleotide exchange factor-induced Eu3+-GTP association to RAS, monitored at 615 nm, and subsequent Eu3+-GTP-loaded RAS interaction with RAF-RBD-Alexa680 monitored at 730 nm. Both reactions were monitored in a single-well assay applicable for inhibitor screening and real-time reaction monitoring. This homogeneous assay enables separable detection of both nucleotide exchange and RAS/RAF interaction inhibitors using low nanomolar protein concentrations. To demonstrate a wider applicability as a screening and real-time reaction monitoring method, the QTR-FRET technique was also applied for G(i)α GTP-loading and pertussis toxin-catalyzed ADP-ribosylation of G(i)α, for which we synthesized a novel γ-GTP-Eu3+ molecule. The study indicates that the QTR-FRET detection technique presented here can be readily applied to dual-parametric assays for various targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Kopra
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Emmiliisa Vuorinen
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Maria Abreu-Blanco
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Dr., Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Qi Wang
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Eskonen
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - William Gillette
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Dr., Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Arto T Pulliainen
- Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Matthew Holderfield
- Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, 8560 Progress Dr., Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Harri Härmä
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
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5
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Vuorinen E, Valtonen S, Eskonen V, Kariniemi T, Jakovleva J, Kopra K, Härmä H. Sensitive Label-Free Thermal Stability Assay for Protein Denaturation and Protein-Ligand Interaction Studies. Anal Chem 2020; 92:3512-3516. [PMID: 32013400 PMCID: PMC7145280 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
In modern biochemistry,
protein stability and ligand interactions are of high interest. These
properties are often studied with methods requiring labeled biomolecules,
as the existing methods utilizing luminescent external probes suffer
from low sensitivity. Currently available label-free technologies,
e.g., thermal shift assays, circular dichroism, and differential scanning
calorimetry, enable studies on protein unfolding and protein–ligand
interactions (PLI). Unfortunately, the required micromolar protein
concentration increases the costs and predisposes these methods for
spontaneous protein aggregation. Here, we report a time-resolved luminescence
method for protein unfolding and PLI detection with nanomolar sensitivity.
The Protein-Probe method is based on highly luminescent europium chelate-conjugated
probe, which is the key component in sensing the hydrophobic regions
exposed to solution after protein unfolding. With the same Eu-probe,
we also demonstrate ligand-interaction induced thermal stabilization
with model proteins. The developed Protein-Probe method provides a
sensitive approach overcoming the problems of the current label-free
methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmiliisa Vuorinen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Salla Valtonen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Eskonen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Taru Kariniemi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Jelena Jakovleva
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Kari Kopra
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Härmä
- Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500 Turku, Finland
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6
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Eskonen V, Tong-Ochoa N, Valtonen S, Kopra K, Härmä H. Thermal Dissociation Assay for Time-Resolved Fluorescence Detection of Protein Post-Translational Modifications. ACS Omega 2019; 4:16501-16507. [PMID: 31616828 PMCID: PMC6787904 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b02134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins provide an important mechanism for cell signal transduction control. Impaired PTM control is a key feature in multiple different disease states, and thus the enzyme-controlling PTMs have drawn attention as highly promising drug targets. Due to the importance of PTMs, various methods to monitor PTM enzyme activity have been developed, but universal high-throughput screening (HTS), a compatible method for different PTMs, remains elusive. Here, we present a homogeneous single-label thermal dissociation assay for the detection of enzymatic PTM removal. The developed method allows the use of micromolar concentration of substrate peptide, which is expected to be beneficial when monitoring enzymes with low activity and peptide binding affinity. We prove the thermal dissociation concept functionality using peptides for dephosphorylation, deacetylation, and demethylation and demonstrate the HTS-compatible flash isothermal method for PTM enzyme activity monitoring. Using specific inhibitors, we detected literature-comparable IC50 values and Z' factors from 0.61 to 0.72, proving the HTS compatibility of the thermal peptide-break technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ville Eskonen
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical
Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University
of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Natalia Tong-Ochoa
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical
Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University
of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Salla Valtonen
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical
Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University
of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Kari Kopra
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical
Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University
of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Härmä
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical
Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University
of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20014 Turku, Finland
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7
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Kopra K, Tong-Ochoa N, Laine M, Eskonen V, Koskinen PJ, Härmä H. Homogeneous peptide-break assay for luminescent detection of enzymatic protein post-translational modification activity utilizing charged peptides. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1055:126-132. [PMID: 30782363 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.12.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a rapid and sensitive universal peptide-based time-resolved luminescence assay for detection of enzymatic post-translational modifications (PTMs). PTMs play essential roles in intracellular signaling and cell regulation, thus providing functional protein diversity in cell. Due this, impaired PTM patterns have been linked to multiple disease states. Clear link between PTMs and pathological conditions have also driven assay development further, but still today most of the methodologies are based on single-specificity or group-specific PTM-recognition. We have previously introduced leuzine-zipper based peptide-break technology as a viable option for universal PTM detection. Here, we introduce peptide-break technology utilizing single-label homogeneous quenching resonance energy transfer (QRET) and charge-based peptide-peptide interaction. We demonstrate the functionality of the new assay concept in phosphorylation, deacetylation, and citrullination. In a comparable study between previously introduced leucine-zipper and the novel charge-based approach, we found equal PTM detection performance and sensitivity, but the peptide design for new targets is simplified with the charged peptides. The new concept allows the use of short <20 amino acid peptides without limitations rising from the leucine-zipper coiled-coil structure. Introduced methodology enables wash-free PTM detection in a 384-well plate format, using low nanomolar enzyme concentrations. Potentially, the peptide-break technique using charged peptides may be applicable for natural peptide sequences directly obtained from the target protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Kopra
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500, Turku, Finland.
| | - Natalia Tong-Ochoa
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Mari Laine
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Eskonen
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Päivi J Koskinen
- Section of Physiology and Genetics, Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Härmä
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, 20500, Turku, Finland
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8
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Manoharan GB, Kopra K, Eskonen V, Härmä H, Abankwa D. High-throughput amenable fluorescence-assays to screen for calmodulin-inhibitors. Anal Biochem 2019; 572:25-32. [PMID: 30825429 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2019.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Revised: 01/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The KRAS gene is highly mutated in human cancers and the focus of current Ras drug development efforts. Recently the interface between the C-terminus of K-Ras and calmodulin (CaM) was proposed as a target site to block K-Ras driven cancer cell stemness. We therefore aimed at developing a high-throughput amenable screening assay to identify novel CaM-inhibitors as potential K-Ras stemness-signaling disruptors. A modulated time-resolved Förster resonance energy transfer (mTR-FRET)-assay was developed and benchmarked against an identically designed fluorescence anisotropy (FA)-assay. In both assays, two CaM-binding peptides were labeled with Eu(III)-chelate or fluorescein and used as single-label reporter probes that were displaced from CaM upon competitor binding. Thus, peptidic and small molecule competitors with nanomolar to micromolar affinities to CaM could be detected, including a peptide that was derived from the C-terminus of K-Ras. In order to detect CaM-residue specific covalent inhibitors, a cell lysate-based Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-assay was furthermore established. This assay enabled us to measure the slow, residue-specific, covalent inhibition by ophiobolin A in the presence of other endogenous proteins. In conclusion, we have developed a panel of fluorescence-assays that allows identification of conventional and covalent CaM-inhibitors as potential disruptors of K-Ras driven cancer cell stemness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganesh Babu Manoharan
- Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, 4362, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Kari Kopra
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Eskonen
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Harri Härmä
- Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, University of Turku, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Daniel Abankwa
- Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, 4362, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg; Turku Centre for Biotechnology, University of Turku and Åbo Akademi University, 20520, Turku, Finland.
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9
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Högmander M, Paul CJ, Chan S, Hokkanen E, Eskonen V, Pahikkala T, Pihlasalo S. Luminometric Label Array for Counting and Differentiation of Bacteria. Anal Chem 2017; 89:3208-3216. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b05142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Milla Högmander
- Department
of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Catherine J. Paul
- Applied
Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, P.O. Box 124, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- Water
Resources Engineering, Department of Building and Environmental Engineering, Lund University, P.O. Box 118, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
| | - Sandy Chan
- Applied
Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, P.O. Box 124, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- Sweden
Water Research, Ideon Science Park, Scheelevägen 15, SE-22370 Lund, Sweden
| | - Elina Hokkanen
- Department
of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Ville Eskonen
- Laboratory
of Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Tapio Pahikkala
- Department
of Information Technology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie
5, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Sari Pihlasalo
- Department
of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 10, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
- Applied
Microbiology, Department of Chemistry, Lund University, P.O. Box 124, SE-22100 Lund, Sweden
- Laboratory
of Materials Chemistry and Chemical Analysis, Department of Chemistry, University of Turku, Vatselankatu 2, FI-20500 Turku, Finland
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