Non-invasive Imaging of Antisense Oligonucleotides in the Brain via In Vivo Click Chemistry

PURPOSE

The treatment of complex neurological diseases often requires the administration of large therapeutic drugs, such as antisense oligonucleotide (ASO), by lumbar puncture into the intrathecal space in order to bypass the blood-brain barrier. Despite the growing number of ASOs in clinical development, there are still uncertainties regarding their dosing, primarily around their distribution and kinetics in the brain following intrathecal injection. The challenge of taking measurements within the delicate structures of the central nervous system (CNS) necessitates the use of non-invasive nuclear imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET). Herein, an emergent strategy known as "pretargeted imaging" is applied to image the distribution of an ASO in the brain by developing a novel PET tracer, [¹⁸F]F-537-Tz. This tracer is able to undergo an in vivo "click" reaction, covalently binding to a trans-cyclooctene conjugated ASO.

PROCEDURES

A novel small molecule tracer for pretargeted PET imaging of ASOs in the CNS is developed and tested in a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments, including biodistribution in rats and non-human primates.

RESULTS

In vitro data and extensive in vivo rat data demonstrated delivery of the tracer to the CNS, and its successful ligation to its ASO target in the brain. In an NHP study, the slow tracer kinetics did not allow for specific binding to be determined by PET.

CONCLUSION

A CNS-penetrant radioligand for pretargeted imaging was successfully demonstrated in a proof-of-concept study in rats, laying the groundwork for further optimization.

Therapeutic Potential of Foldamers: From Chemical Biology Tools To Drug Candidates?

Over the past decade, foldamers have progressively emerged as useful architectures to mimic secondary structures of proteins. Peptidic foldamers, consisting of various amino acid based backbones, have been the most studied from a therapeutic perspective, while polyaromatic foldamers have barely evolved from their nascency and remain perplexing for medicinal chemists due to their poor drug-like nature. Despite these limitations, this compound class may still offer opportunities to study challenging targets or provide chemical biology tools. The potential of foldamer drug candidates reaching the clinic is still a stretch. Nevertheless, advances in the field have demonstrated their potential for the discovery of next generation therapeutics. In this perspective, the current knowledge of foldamers is reviewed in a drug discovery context. Recent advances in the early phases of drug discovery including hit finding, target validation, and optimization and molecular modeling are discussed. In addition, challenges and focus areas are debated and gaps highlighted.

In vivo proximity labeling for the detection of protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions

Accurate and sensitive detection of protein–protein and protein–RNA interactions is key to understanding their biological functions. Traditional methods to identify these interactions require cell lysis and biochemical manipulations that exclude cellular compartments that cannot be solubilized under mild conditions. Here, we introduce an in vivo proximity labeling (IPL) technology that employs an affinity tag combined with a photoactivatable probe to label polypeptides and RNAs in the vicinity of a protein of interest in vivo. Using quantitative mass spectrometry and deep sequencing, we show that IPL correctly identifies known protein–protein and protein–RNA interactions in the nucleus of mammalian cells. Thus, IPL provides additional temporal and spatial information for the characterization of biological interactions in vivo.

Asymmetrically modified nucleosomes

Mononucleosomes, the basic building blocks of chromatin, contain two copies of each core histone. The associated posttranslational modifications regulate essential chromatin-dependent processes, yet whether each histone copy is identically modified in vivo is unclear. We demonstrate that nucleosomes in embryonic stem cells, fibroblasts, and cancer cells exist in both symmetrically and asymmetrically modified populations for histone H3 lysine 27 di/trimethylation (H3K27me2/3) and H4K20me1. Further, we obtained direct physical evidence for bivalent nucleosomes carrying H3K4me3 or H3K36me3 along with H3K27me3, albeit on opposite H3 tails. Bivalency at target genes was resolved upon differentiation of ES cells. Polycomb repressive complex 2-mediated methylation of H3K27 was inhibited when nucleosomes contain symmetrically, but not asymmetrically, placed H3K4me3 or H3K36me3. These findings uncover a potential mechanism for the incorporation of bivalent features into nucleosomes and demonstrate how asymmetry might set the stage to diversify functional nucleosome states.

Azalysine analogues as probes for protein lysine deacetylation and demethylation

Reversible lysine acetylation and methylation regulate the function of a wide variety of proteins, including histones. Here, we have synthesized azalysine-containing peptides in acetylated and unacetylated forms as chemical probes of the histone deacetylases (HDAC8, Sir2Tm, and SIRT1) and the histone demethylase, LSD1. We have shown that the acetyl-azalysine modification is a fairly efficient substrate for the sirtuins, but a weaker substrate for HDAC8, a classical HDAC. In addition to deacetylation by sirtuins, the acetyl-azalysine analogue generates a novel ADP-ribose adduct that was characterized by mass spectrometry, Western blot analysis, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This peptide-ADP-ribose adduct is proposed to correspond to a derailed reaction intermediate, providing unique evidence for the direct 2'-hydroxyl attack on the O-alkylimidate intermediate that is formed in the course of sirtuin catalyzed deacetylation. An unacetylated azalysine-containing H3 peptide proved to be a potent inhibitor of the LSD1 demethylase, forming an FAD adduct characteristic of previously reported related structures, providing a new chemical probe for mechanistic analysis.

The C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase II is modified by site-specific methylation

The carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) in mammals undergoes extensive posttranslational modification, which is essential for transcriptional initiation and elongation. Here, we show that the CTD of RNAPII is methylated at a single arginine (R1810) by the coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase 1 (CARM1). Although methylation at R1810 is present on the hyperphosphorylated form of RNAPII in vivo, Ser2 or Ser5 phosphorylation inhibits CARM1 activity toward this site in vitro, suggesting that methylation occurs before transcription initiation. Mutation of R1810 results in the misexpression of a variety of small nuclear RNAs and small nucleolar RNAs, an effect that is also observed in Carm1(-/-) mouse embryo fibroblasts. These results demonstrate that CTD methylation facilitates the expression of select RNAs, perhaps serving to discriminate the RNAPII-associated machinery recruited to distinct gene types.

Role of the polycomb protein EED in the propagation of repressive histone marks

Polycomb group proteins have an essential role in the epigenetic maintenance of repressive chromatin states. The gene-silencing activity of the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) depends on its ability to trimethylate lysine 27 of histone H3 (H3K27) by the catalytic SET domain of the EZH2 subunit, and at least two other subunits of the complex: SUZ12 and EED. Here we show that the carboxy-terminal domain of EED specifically binds to histone tails carrying trimethyl-lysine residues associated with repressive chromatin marks, and that this leads to the allosteric activation of the methyltransferase activity of PRC2. Mutations in EED that prevent it from recognizing repressive trimethyl-lysine marks abolish the activation of PRC2 in vitro and, in Drosophila, reduce global methylation and disrupt development. These findings suggest a model for the propagation of the H3K27me3 mark that accounts for the maintenance of repressive chromatin domains and for the transmission of a histone modification from mother to daughter cells.

The target of the NSD family of histone lysine methyltransferases depends on the nature of the substrate

The NSD (nuclear receptor SET domain-containing) family of histone lysine methyltransferases is a critical participant in chromatin integrity as evidenced by the number of human diseases associated with the aberrant expression of its family members. Yet, the specific targets of these enzymes are not clear, with marked discrepancies being reported in the literature. We demonstrate that NSD2 can exhibit disparate target preferences based on the nature of the substrate provided. The NSD2 complex purified from human cells and recombinant NSD2 both exhibit specific targeting of histone H3 lysine 36 (H3K36) when provided with nucleosome substrates, but histone H4 lysine 44 is the primary target in the case of octamer substrates, irrespective of the histones being native or recombinant. This disparity is negated when NSD2 is presented with octamer targets in conjunction with short single- or double-stranded DNA. Although the octamers cannot form nucleosomes, the target is nonetheless nucleosome-specific as is the product, dimethylated H3K36. This study clarifies in part the previous discrepancies reported with respect to NSD targets. We propose that DNA acts as an allosteric effector of NSD2 such that H3K36 becomes the preferred target.

Analysis of serotonin N-acetyltransferase regulation in vitro and in live cells using protein semisynthesis

Serotonin N-acetyltransferase [arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (AANAT)] is a key circadian rhythm enzyme that drives the nocturnal production of melatonin in the pineal. Prior studies have suggested that its light and diurnal regulation involves phosphorylation on key AANAT Ser and Thr residues which results in 14-3-3zeta recruitment and changes in catalytic activity and protein stability. Here we use protein semisynthesis by expressed protein ligation to systematically explore the effects of single and dual phosphorylation of AANAT on acetyltransferase activity and relative affinity for 14-3-3zeta. AANAT Thr31 phosphorylation on its own can enhance catalytic efficiency up to 7-fold through an interaction with 14-3-3zeta that lowers the substrate K m. This augmented catalytic profile is largely abolished by double phosphorylation at Thr31 and Ser205. A possible basis for this difference is the dual anchoring of doubly phosphorylated AANAT via one 14-3-3zeta heterodimer. We have developed a novel solution phase assay for accurate K D measurements of 14-3-3zeta-AANAT interaction using 14-3-3zeta fluorescently labeled with rhodamine by expressed protein ligation. We have also generated a doubly fluorescently labeled AANAT which can be used to assess the stability of this protein in a live cell, real-time assay by fluorescence resonance energy transfer measured by microscopic imaging. These studies offer new insights into the molecular basis of melatonin regulation and 14-3-3zeta interaction.

Development of a New Dimeric Cyclophane Ligand: Application to Enhanced Diastereo- and Enantioselectivity in the Catalytic Synthesis of β-Lactams

We detail the synthesis of a new C(2)-symmetric bis(cyclophane) ligand system that can be thought of as electronically analogous to binol, but which possesses the added "third dimension" of cyclophane chirality. The ligand synthesis involves a spontaneous (but unexpected) atropisomerization to the desired product. We have employed this ligand to form a metal complex that is an effective cocatalyst for the highly enantio- and diastereoselective catalytic asymmetric synthesis of a beta-lactam.

Design of chiral ligands for asymmetric catalysis: from C2-symmetric P,P- and N,N-ligands to sterically and electronically nonsymmetrical P,N-ligands

For a long time, C(2)-symmetric ligands have dominated in asymmetric catalysis. More recently, nonsymmetrical modular P,N-ligands have been introduced. These ligands have been applied successfully in various metal-catalyzed reactions and, in many cases, have outperformed P,P- or N,N-ligands.

Catalytic, enantioselective alkylation of alpha-imino esters: the synthesis of nonnatural alpha-amino acid derivatives

Methodology for the practical synthesis of nonnatural amino acids has been developed through the catalytic, asymmetric alkylation of alpha-imino esters and N,O-acetals by enol silanes, ketene acetals, alkenes, and allylsilanes using chiral transition metal-phosphine complexes as catalysts (1-5 mol %). The alkylation products, which are prepared with high enantioselectivity (up to 99% ee) and diastereoselectivity (up to 25:1/anti:syn), are protected nonnatural amino acids that represent potential precursors to natural products and pharmaceuticals. A kinetic analysis of the catalyzed reaction of alkenes with alpha-imino esters is presented to shed light on the mechanism of this reaction.

Column asymmetric catalysis for beta-lactam synthesis

[structure] A catalytic asymmetric reaction process was designed involving the use of solid-phase reagents and catalysts that constitute the packing of a series of "reaction columns". This process was applied to the catalytic asymmetric synthesis of beta-lactams, yielding pure product after crystallization with exceptional enantio- and diastereoselectivity.

Nucleophilic metal complexes as acylation catalysts: solvent-dependent "switch" mechanisms leading to the first catalyzed Staudinger reaction

[formula: see text] Catalytic acylation using complex transition metal salts MCo(CO)4 is demonstrated. Surprisingly, a solvent-dependent mechanistic "switch" results in a Lewis acid-based acylation mechanism in nonpolar media and a nucleophilic mechanism in polar organic media. These observations lead to the first example of a catalyzed Staudinger reaction to form beta-lactams.

Quantitative observations of heterogeneities in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms

Heterogeneity in a Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm was quantified by measuring distributions of thickness in biofilm samples and a distribution of particle sizes in effluent samples. The mean steady-state thickness was approximately 33 microns, but individual measurements ranged from 13.3 to 60.0 microns. Particles exceeding 100 microns3 were observed in the reactor effluent. The results reveal a rough biofilm surface and indicate that most biomass detaches in the form of multicellular particles.