Correction of symptoms of Huntington disease by genistein through FOXO3-mediated autophagy stimulation

Huntington disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the HTT gene. The expansion of CAG triplets leads to the appearance of misfolded HTT (huntingtin) forming aggregates and leading to impairment of neuronal functions. Here we demonstrate that stimulation of macroautophagy/autophagy by genistein (4',5,7-trihydroxyisoflavone or 5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4 H-1-benzopyran-4-one) caused a reduction of levels of mutated HTT in brains of HD mice and correction of their behavior as assessed in a battery of cognitive, anxiety and motor tests, even if the compound was administered after symptoms had developed in the animals. Biochemical and immunological parameters were also improved in HD mice. Studies on molecular mechanisms of genistein-mediated stimulation of autophagy in HD cells indicated the involvement of the FOXO3-related pathway. In conclusion, treatment with genistein stimulates the autophagy process in the brains of HD mice, leading to correction of symptoms of HD, suggesting that it might be considered as a potential drug for this disease. Combined with a very recently published report indicating that impaired autophagy may be a major cause of neurodegenerative changes, these results may indicate the way to the development of effective therapeutic approaches for different neurodegenerative diseases by testing compounds (or possibly combinations of compounds) capable of stimulating autophagy and/or unblocking this process.Abbreviations: CNS: central nervous system; EPM: elevated plus-maze; GOT1/ASPAT: glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase 1, soluble; GPT/ALAT/ALT: glutamic pyruvic transaminase, soluble; HD: Huntington disease; HTT: huntingtin; IL: interleukin; mHTT: mutant huntingtin; NOR: novel object recognition; MWM: Morris water maze; OF: open field; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TNF: tumor necrosis factor.

Clinical presentation of 13 children with alkaptonuria

Until now, only a few studies have focused on the early onset of symptoms of alkaptonuria (AKU) in the pediatric population. This prospective, longitudinal study is a comprehensive approach to the assessment of children with recognized AKU during childhood. The study includes data from 32 visits of 13 patients (five males, eight females; age 4-17 years) with AKU. A clinical evaluation was performed with particular attention to eye, ear, and skin pigmentation, musculoskeletal complaints, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound (US) imaging abnormalities. The cognitive functioning and adaptive abilities were examined. Molecular genetic analyses were performed. The most common symptoms observed were dark urine (13/13), followed by joint pain (6/13), and dark ear wax (6/13). In 4 of 13 patients the values obtained in the KOOS-child questionnaire were below the reference values. MRI and US did not show degenerative changes in knee cartilages. One child had nephrolithiasis. Almost half of the children with AKU (5/13) presented deficits in cognitive functioning and/or adaptive abilities. The most frequent HGD variants observed in the patients were c.481G>A (p.Gly161Arg) mutation and the c.240A>T (p.His80Gln) polymorphism. The newly described allele of the HGD gene (c.948G>T, p.Val316Phe) which is potentially pathogenic was identified.

The Komagatella phaffii ACG1 gene, encoding β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, is involved in the autophagy of cytosolic and peroxisomal proteins

The methylotrophic yeast Komagataella phaffii is considered one of the most effective producers of recombinant proteins of industrial importance. Effective producers should be characterized by the maximal reduction of degradation of the cytosolic recombinant proteins. The mechanisms of degradation of cytosolic proteins in K. phaffii have not been elucidated; however, data suggest that they are partially degraded in the autophagic pathway. To identify factors that influence this process, a developed system for the selection of recombinant strains of K. phaffii with impaired autophagic degradation of the heterologous model cytosolic protein (yeast β-galactosidase) was used for insertional tagging of the genes involved in cytosolic proteins degradation. In one of the obtained strains, the insertion cassette disrupted the open reading frame of the gene encoding β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase. A recombinant strain with deletion of this gene was also obtained. The rate of degradation of the β-galactosidase enzyme was two times slower in the insertion mutant and 1.5 times slower in the deletion strain as compared to the parental strain with native β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase. The rate of degradation of native K. phaffii cytosolic and peroxisomal enzymes, formaldehyde dehydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, and alcohol oxidase, respectively, showed similar trends to that of β-galactosidase-slower degradation in the deletion and insertional mutants as compared to the wild-type strain, but faster protein degradation relative to the strain completely defective in autophagy. We conclude that K. phaffii gene designated ACG1, encoding β-1,6-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase, is involved in autophagy of the cytosolic and peroxisomal proteins.

Contribution of vesicle trafficking dysregulation to the pathomechanism of mucopolysaccharidosis

Although mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are monogenic diseases, caused by mutations in genes coding for enzymes involved in degradation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), recent studies suggested that changes in expressions of various genes might cause secondary and tertiary cellular dysfunctions modulating the course of these diseases. In this report, we demonstrate that vesicle trafficking regulation is affected in fibroblasts derived from patients suffering from 11 different types of MPS due to changes in levels of crucial proteins (estimated by automated Western-blotting) involved in this process, including caveolin, clathrin, huntingtin (Htt), APPL1, EEA1, GOPC, Rab5, and Rab7. Microscopic studies confirmed these results, while investigations of tissue samples derived from the MPS I mouse model indicated differences between various organs in this matter. Moreover, transcriptomic analyses provided a global picture for changes in expressions of genes related to vesicle trafficking in MPS cells. We conclude that vesicle trafficking is dysregulated in MPS cells and changes in this process might contribute to the molecular mechanisms of this disease. Most probably, primary GAG storage might cause a cellular stress response leading to dysregulation of expression of many genes which, in turn, results in changes in cellular processes like vesicle trafficking. This can significantly modulate the course of the disease due to enhancing accumulation of GAGs and altering crucial cellular processes. This hypothesis has been supported by normalization of levels of clathrin in MPS cells treated with either an active form of the deficient GAG-degrading enzyme or a compound (5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one) indirectly reducing the efficiency of GAG synthesis.

Roles of the Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) in Human Diseases

The oxytocin receptor (OXTR), encoded by the OXTR gene, is responsible for the signal transduction after binding its ligand, oxytocin. Although this signaling is primarily involved in controlling maternal behavior, it was demonstrated that OXTR also plays a role in the development of the nervous system. Therefore, it is not a surprise that both the ligand and the receptor are involved in the modulation of behaviors, especially those related to sexual, social, and stress-induced activities. As in the case of every regulatory system, any disturbances in the structures or functions of oxytocin and OXTR may lead to the development or modulation of various diseases related to the regulated functions, which in this case include either mental problems (autism, depression, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorders) or those related to the functioning of reproductive organs (endometriosis, uterine adenomyosis, premature birth). Nevertheless, OXTR abnormalities are also connected to other diseases, including cancer, cardiac disorders, osteoporosis, and obesity. Recent reports indicated that the changes in the levels of OXTR and the formation of its aggregates may influence the course of some inherited metabolic diseases, such as mucopolysaccharidoses. In this review, the involvement of OXTR dysfunctions and OXTR polymorphisms in the development of different diseases is summarized and discussed. The analysis of published results led us to suggest that changes in OXTR expression and OXTR abundance and activity are not specific to individual diseases, but rather they influence processes (mostly related to behavioral changes) that might modulate the course of various disorders. Moreover, a possible explanation of the discrepancies in the published results of effects of the OXTR gene polymorphisms and methylation on different diseases is proposed.

The use of phage display systems to combat infectious diseases in poultry: diagnostic, vaccine, and therapeutic approaches

Development of molecular biology and understanding structures and functions of various biological molecules and entities allowed to construct various sophisticated tools for different biotechnological, medical, and veterinary applications. One of them is the phage display technology, based on the possibility to create specific bacteriophages bearing fusion genes, which code for fusion proteins consisting of a phage coat protein and a peptide of any amino acid sequence. Such proteins retain their biological functions as structural elements of phage virions while exposing foreign peptide sequences on their surfaces. Genetic manipulations allow to construct phage display libraries composed of billions of variants of exposed peptides; such libraries can be used to select peptides of desired features. Although the phage display technology has been widely used in biotechnology and medicine, its applications in veterinary and especially in poultry science were significantly less frequent. Nevertheless, many interesting discoveries have been reported also in the latter field, providing evidence for a possibility of effective applications of phage display-related methods in developing novel diagnostic tools, new vaccines, and innovative potential therapies dedicated to poultry. Especially, infectious diseases caused by avian viruses, bacteria, and unicellular eukaryotic parasites were investigated in this field. These studies are summarized and discussed in this review, with presentation of various possibilities provided by different phage display systems in development of useful and effective products facilitating management of the problem of infectious diseases of poultry.

Expression of Long Noncoding RNAs in Fibroblasts from Mucopolysaccharidosis Patients

In this report, changes in the levels of various long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) were demonstrated for the first time in fibroblasts derived from patients suffering from 11 types/subtypes of mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS). Some kinds of lncRNA (SNHG5, LINC01705, LINC00856, CYTOR, MEG3, and GAS5) were present at especially elevated levels (an over six-fold change relative to the control cells) in several types of MPS. Some potential target genes for these lncRNAs were identified, and correlations between changed levels of specific lncRNAs and modulations in the abundance of mRNA transcripts of these genes (HNRNPC, FXR1, TP53, TARDBP, and MATR3) were found. Interestingly, the affected genes code for proteins involved in various regulatory processes, especially gene expression control through interactions with DNA or RNA regions. In conclusion, the results presented in this report suggest that changes in the levels of lncRNAs can considerably influence the pathomechanism of MPS through the dysregulation of the expression of certain genes, especially those involved in the control of the activities of other genes.

Activities of (Poly)phenolic Antioxidants and Other Natural Autophagy Modulators in the Treatment of Sanfilippo Disease: Remarkable Efficacy of Resveratrol in Cellular and Animal Models

Sanfilippo disease, caused by mutations in the genes encoding heparan sulfate (HS) (a glycosaminoglycan; GAG) degradation enzymes, is a mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS), which is also known as MPS type III, and is characterized by subtypes A, B, C, and D, depending on identity of the dysfunctional enzyme. The lack of activity or low residual activity of an HS-degrading enzyme leads to excess HS in the cells, impairing the functions of different types of cells, including neurons. The disease usually leads to serious psychomotor dysfunction and death before adulthood. In this work, we show that the use of molecules known as dietary (poly)phenolic antioxidants and other natural compounds known as autophagy activators (genistein, capsaicin, curcumin, resveratrol, trehalose, and calcitriol) leads to accelerated degradation of accumulated HS in the fibroblasts of all subtypes of MPS III. Both the cytotoxicity tests we performed and the available literature data indicated that the use of selected autophagy inducers was safe. Since it showed the highest effectivity in cellular models, resveratrol efficacy was tested in experiments with a mouse model of MPS IIIB. Urinary GAG levels were normalized in MPS IIIB mice treated with 50 mg/kg/day resveratrol for 12 weeks or longer. Behavioral tests indicated complete correction of hyperactivity and anxiety in these animals. Biochemical analyses indicated that administration of resveratrol caused autophagy stimulation through an mTOR-independent pathway in the brains and livers of the MPS IIIB mice. These results indicate the potential use of resveratrol (and possibly other autophagy stimulators) in the treatment of Sanfilippo disease.

Mucopolysaccharidosis-Plus Syndrome: Report on a Polish Patient with a Novel VPS33A Variant with Comparison with Other Described Patients

Eleven patients from Yakutia with a new lysosomal disease assumed then as mucopolysaccharidosis-plus syndrome (MPS-PS) were reported by Gurinova et al. in 2014. Up to now, a total number of 39 patients have been reported; in all of them, the c.1492C>T (p.Arg498Trp) variant of the VPS33A gene was detected. Here, we describe the first Polish MPS-PS patient with a novel homozygous c.599G>C (p.Arg200Pro) VPS33A variant presenting over 12 years of follow-up with some novel clinical features, including fetal ascites (resolved spontaneously), recurrent joint effusion and peripheral edemas, normal growth, and visceral obesity. Functional analyses revealed a slight presence of chondroitin sulphate (only) in urine glycosaminoglycan electrophoresis, presence of sialooligosaccharides in urine by thin-layer chromatography, and normal results of lysosomal enzymes activity and lysosphingolipids concentration in dried blood spot. The comparison with other MPS-PS described cases was also provided. The presented description of the natural history of MPS-PS in our patient may broaden the spectrum of phenotypes in this disease.

Sanfilippo Syndrome: Optimizing Care with a Multidisciplinary Approach

Sanfilippo syndrome, or mucopolysaccharidosis type III (MPS III), is a disease grouping five genetic disorders, four of them occurring in humans and one known to date only in a mouse model. In every subtype of MPS III (designed A, B, C, D or E), a lack or drastically decreased activity of an enzyme involved in the degradation of heparan sulfate (HS) (a compound from the group of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)) arises from a genetic defect. This leads to primary accumulation of HS, and secondary storage of other compounds, combined with changes in expressions of hundreds of genes and many defects in organelles and various biochemical processes in the cell. As a result, dysfunctions of tissues and organs occur, leading to severe symptoms in patients. Although changes in somatic organs are considerable, the central nervous system is especially severely affected, and neurological, cognitive and behavioral disorders are the most significant changes, making the disease enormously burdensome for patients and their families. In the light of the current lack of any registered therapy for Sanfilippo syndrome (despite various attempts of many research groups to develop effective treatment, still no specific drug or procedure is available for MPS III), optimizing care with a multidisciplinary approach is crucial for managing this disease and making quality of patients’ life passable. This includes efforts to make/organize (i) accurate diagnosis as early as possible (which is not easy due to various possible misdiagnosis events caused by similarity of MPS III symptoms to those of other diseases and variability of patients), (ii) optimized symptomatic treatment (which is challenging because of complexity of symptoms and often untypical responses of MPS III patients to various drugs), and (iii) psychological care (for both patients and family members and/or caregivers). In this review article, we focus on these approaches, summarizing and discussing them.

Cell cycle disturbances in mucopolysaccharidoses: Transcriptomic and experimental studies on cellular models

Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are a group of lysosomal storage diseases caused by defects in genes coding for proteins involved in degradation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). These complex carbohydrates accumulate in cells causing their serious dysfunctions. Apart from the physical GAG storage, secondary and tertiary changes may contribute significantly to the pathomechanism of the disease. Among processes which were not systematically investigated in MPS cells to date there is the cell cycle. Here, we studied perturbances in this crucial cellular process in majority of MPS types. Transcriptomic analyses indicated that expression of many genes coding for proteins involved in the cell cycle is dysregulated in all tested MPS cells. Importantly, levels of transcripts of particular genes were changed in the same manner (i.e. either up- or down-regulated) in most or all types of the disease, indicating a common mechanism of the dysregulation. Flow cytometric studies demonstrated that the cell cycle is disturbed in all MPS types, with increased fractions of cells in the G₀/G₁ phase in most types and decreased fractions of cells in the G₂/M phase in all types. We found that increased levels of cyclin D1 and disturbed timing of its appearance during the cell cycle may contribute to the mechanism of dysregulation of this process in MPS. Reduction of GAG levels by either a specific enzyme or genistein-mediated inhibition of synthesis of these compounds improved, but not fully corrected, the cell cycle in MPS fibroblasts. Therefore, it is suggested that combination of the therapeutic approaches devoted to reduction of GAG levels with cyclin D1 inhibitors might be considered in further works on developing effective treatment procedures for MPS.

Biological aspects of phage therapy versus antibiotics against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection of chickens

Phage therapy is a promising alternative treatment of bacterial infections in human and animals. Nevertheless, despite the appearance of many bacterial strains resistant to antibiotics, these drugs still remain important therapeutics used in human and veterinary medicine. Although experimental phage therapy of infections caused by Salmonella enterica was described previously by many groups, those studies focused solely on effects caused by bacteriophages. Here, we compared the use of phage therapy (employing a cocktail composed of two previously isolated and characterized bacteriophages, vB_SenM-2 and vB_Sen-TO17) and antibiotics (enrofloxacin and colistin) in chickens infected experimentally with S. enterica serovar Typhimurium. We found that the efficacies of both types of therapies (i.e. the use of antibiotics and phage cocktail) were high and very similar to one another when the treatment was applied shortly (one day) after the infection. Under these conditions, S. Typhimurium was quickly eliminated from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), to the amount not detectable by the used methods. However, later treatment (2 or 4 days after detection of S. Typhimurium in chicken feces) with the phage cocktail was significantly less effective. Bacteriophages remained in the GIT for up to 2-3 weeks, and then were absent in feces and cloaca swabs. Interestingly, both phages could be found in various organs of chickens though with a relatively low abundance. No development of resistance of S. Typhimurium to phages or antibiotics was detected during the experiment. Importantly, although antibiotics significantly changed the GIT microbiome of chickens in a long-term manner, analogous changes caused by phages were transient, and the microbiome normalized a few weeks after the treatment. In conclusion, phage therapy against S. Typhimurium infection in chickens appeared as effective as antibiotic therapy (with either enrofloxacin or colistin), and less invasive than the use the antibiotics as fewer changes in the microbiome were observed.

Misdiagnosis in mucopolysaccharidoses

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) is a group of 13 hereditary metabolic diseases identified in humans (or 14 diseases if considering one MPS type described to date only in mice) in which an enzymatic defect results in the accumulation of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) in the lysosomes of cells. First of all, as a result of GAG storage, the proper functioning of the lysosome is disturbed; then, the cells, and finally, tissue, organs, and the whole organism malfunctions are observed. Due to the rarity, heterogeneity, and multi-systemic and progressive nature of MPS, they present a major diagnostic challenge. Due to the wide variation in symptoms and their similarity to other diseases, MPS is often misdiagnosed, usually as neurological diseases (like autism spectrum disorders, psychomotor hyperactivity, and intellectual disability) or rheumatology and orthopedic disorders (like juvenile idiopathic arthritis, Perthes disease, rickets, and muscular dystrophy). In this review article, we present the problems associated with the possibility of misdiagnosing MPS, discuss what diseases they can be confused with, and suggest ways to reduce these problems in the future.

Impaired ion homeostasis as a possible associate factor in mucopolysaccharidosis pathogenesis: transcriptomic, cellular and animal studies

Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are a group of diseases caused by mutations resulting in deficiencies of lysosomal enzymes which lead to the accumulation of partially undegraded glycosaminoglycans (GAG). This phenomenon causes severe and chronic disturbances in the functioning of the organism, and leads to premature death. The metabolic defects affect also functions of the brain in most MPS types (except types IV, VI, and IX). The variety of symptoms, as well as the ineffectiveness of GAG-lowering therapies, question the early theory that GAG storage is the only cause of these diseases. As disorders of ion homeostasis increasingly turn out to be co-causes of the pathogenesis of various human diseases, the aim of this work was to determine the perturbations related to the maintenance of the ion balance at both the transcriptome and cellular levels in MPS. Transcriptomic studies, performed with fibroblasts derived from patients with all types/subtypes of MPS, showed extensive changes in the expression of genes involved in processes related to ion binding, transport and homeostasis. Detailed analysis of these data indicated specific changes in the expression of genes coding for proteins participating in the metabolism of Ca2+, Fe2+ and Zn2+. The results of tests carried out with the mouse MPS I model (Idua-/-) showed reductions in concentrations of these 3 ions in the liver and spleen. The results of these studies indicate for the first time ionic concentration disorders as possible factors influencing the course of MPS and show them as hypothetical, additional therapeutic targets for this rare disease.

Determination of Effects and Mechanisms of Action of Bacterial Amyloids on Antibiotic Resistance

Bacterial functional amyloids, apart from their many other functions, can influence the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics and other antibacterial agents. Mechanisms of modulation of susceptibility of bacterial cells to antimicrobials can be either indirect or direct. The former mechanisms are exemplified by the contribution of functional amyloids to biofilm formation, which may effectively prevent the penetration of various compounds into bacterial cells. The direct mechanisms include the effects of bacterial proteins revealing amyloid-like structures, like the C-terminal region of the Escherichia coli Hfq protein, on the expression of genes involved in antibiotic resistance. Therefore, in this paper, we describe methods by which effects and mechanisms of action of bacterial amyloids on antibiotic resistance can be studied. Assessment of formation of biofilms, determination of the efficiency of antibiotic resistance in solid and liquid media, and determination of the effects on gene expression at levels of mRNA abundance and stability and protein abundance are described.

Unexplored potential: Biologically active compounds produced by microorganisms from hard-to-reach environments and their applications

Rapid development of antibiotic resistance of bacteria and fungi, as well as cancer drug resistance, has become a global medical problem. Therefore, alternative methods of treatment are considered. Studies of recent years have focused on finding new biologically active compounds that may be effective against drug-resistant cells. High biodiversity of hard-to-reach environments offers sources to search for novel molecules potentially applicable for medical purposes. In this review article, we summarize and discuss compounds produced by microorganisms from hot springs, glaciers, caves, underground lakes, marine ecosystems, and hydrothermal vents. Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant potential of these molecules are presented and discussed. We conclude that using compounds derived from microorganisms occurring in extreme environments might be considered in further studies on development of treatment procedures for diseases caused by drug-resistant cells.

Potential of genistein-induced autophagy in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Development of therapies for neurodegenerative diseases, disorders characterized by progressing loss of neurons, is a great challenge for current medicine. Searching for drugs for these diseases is being proceeded in many laboratories in the world. To date, several therapeutical strategies have been proposed which, however, are either of insufficient efficacy or at the early preclinical stages. One of the newest concepts is elevated efficiency of degradation of protein aggregates which are causes of 70% of these diseases. Autophagy, i.e. lysosomal degradation of macromolecules, is a process which could be employed in such a strategy Searching for a compound which would not only stimulate autophagy but also reveal safety in a long-term usage and be able to cross the blood-brain-barrier led to studies on one of flavonoids, genistein which occurs at high concentrations in soy. Experiments with this compound indicated its enormous efficiency in removing protein aggregated formed by beta-amyloid, hyperphosphorylated tau protein, and mutant huntingtin. Moreover, using animal models of these diseases, correction of cognitive and motoric symptoms was demonstrated. Considering safety of genistein as well as its ability to crossing the blood-brain-barrier, one may assume that this molecule is a candidate for an effective drug in therapies of not only Alzheimer disease and Huntington disease, but also other disorders caused be protein aggregates. In this article, recent results of studies on the use of genistein in different models of neurodegenerative diseases are summarized, with special emphasis on its autophagy-dependent action.

Gene Expression-Related Changes in Morphologies of Organelles and Cellular Component Organization in Mucopolysaccharidoses

Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are inherited metabolic diseases characterized by accumulation of incompletely degraded glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in lysosomes. Although primary causes of these diseases are mutations in genes coding for enzymes involved in lysosomal GAG degradation, it was demonstrated that storage of these complex carbohydrates provokes a cascade of secondary and tertiary changes affecting cellular functions. Potentially, this might lead to appearance of cellular disorders which could not be corrected even if the primary cause of the disease is removed. In this work, we studied changes in cellular organelles in MPS fibroblasts relative to control cells. All 11 types and subtypes of MPS were included into this study to obtain a complex picture of changes in organelles in this group of diseases. Two experimental approaches were employed, transcriptomic analyses and electron microscopic assessment of morphology of organelles. We analyzed levels of transcripts of genes grouped into two terms included into the QuickGO database, ‘Cellular component organization’ (GO:0016043) and ‘Cellular anatomical entity’ (GO:0110165), to find that number of transcripts with significantly changed levels in MPS fibroblasts vs. controls ranged from 109 to 322 (depending on MPS type) in GO:0016043, and from 70 to 208 in GO:0110165. This dysregulation of expression of genes crucial for proper structures and functions of various organelles was accompanied by severe changes in morphologies of lysosomes, nuclei, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum. Interestingly, some observed changes occurred in all/most MPS types while others were specific to particular disease types/subtypes. We suggest that severe changes in organelles in MPS cells might arise from dysregulation of expression of a battery of genes involved in organelles’ structures and functions. Intriguingly, normalization of GAG levels by using recombinant human enzymes specific to different MPS types corrected morphologies of some, but not all, organelles, while it failed to improve regulation of expression of selected genes. These results might suggest reasons for inability of enzyme replacement therapy to correct all MPS symptoms, particularly if initiated at advanced stages of the disease.

Transcriptomic Changes Related to Cellular Processes with Particular Emphasis on Cell Activation in Lysosomal Storage Diseases from the Group of Mucopolysaccharidoses

Although mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS), inherited metabolic diseases from the group of lysosomal storage diseases (LSD), are monogenic disorders, recent studies indicated that their molecular mechanisms are complicated. Storage of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), arising from a deficiency in one of the enzymes involved in the degradation of these compounds, is the primary cause of each MPS type. However, dysfunctions of various cellular organelles and disturbance of cellular processes have been reported which contribute considerably to pathomechanisms of the disease. Here, we present a complex transcriptomic analysis in which all types and subtypes of MPS were investigated, with special emphasis on genes related to cell activation processes. Complex changes in expression of these genes were found in fibroblasts of all MPS types, with number of transcripts revealing higher or lower levels (relative to control fibroblasts) between 19 and over 50, depending on MPS type. Genes in which expression was significantly affected in most MPS types code for proteins involved in following processes, classified according to Gene Ontology knowledge database: cell activation, cell growth, cell recognition, and cell division. Levels of some transcripts (including CD9, CLU, MME and others) were especially significantly changed (over five times relative to controls). Our results are discussed in the light of molecular pathomechanisms of MPS, indicating that secondary and/or tertiary changes, relative to GAG storage, might significantly modulate cellular dysfunctions and contribute to molecular mechanisms of the disease. This may influence the efficacy of various therapies and suggests why various treatments are not fully effective in improving the complex symptoms of MPS.

Genistein induces degradation of mutant huntingtin in fibroblasts from Huntington's disease patients

Mutations in the HTT gene, consisting of expansion of CAG triplets, cause the Huntington's disease (HD), one of the major neurodegenerative disorders. Formation of aggregates of mutant huntingtin (mHTT, the product of the mutant HTT gene) leads to cellular dysfunctions, and subsequent neurodegeneration which manifest clinically as motor abnormalities and cognitive deficits. We recently used immortalized HEK-293 cells expressing the 1st exon of the mutant HTT gene as a cellular model of HD, and showed that the stimulation of autophagy by genistein corrected the mutant phenotype. However, effects of genistein on HD patient-derived cells remained unknown. In this report, we demonstrated that genistein also instigated degradation of mHTT in fibroblasts derived from HD patients. This was assessed as a significant decrease in the levels of HTT in HD fibroblasts measured by Western-blotting, and the disappearance of intracellular mHTT aggregates in cells observed by fluorescent microscopy. Fibroblasts derived from control persons were not affected by genistein treatment. These results indicate that genistein can improve HD phenotype in patient-derived cells, and substantiates the need for further studies of this isoflavone as a potential therapeutic agent.

[Molecular mechanisms of genistein action in the light of therapies for genetic and immunological diseases]

Genetic and immunological diseases, despite many attempts to develop effective treatments, still remain a great challenge for medicine. Current therapies of these diseases consist of pharmacological alleviation of symptoms, rehabilitation and psychological help which, although very important, are not sufficient. Therefore, searching for new therapeutics which could remove the major causes of these diseases is of particular importance for the society. Natural compounds reveal many biological activities which makes them candidates for drugs in such diseases. One of them is genistein, a compound from the group of flavonoids. As it affects multiple processes, genistein has become in the center of interest of many scientists working on diseases of various etiology, course and inheritance. It was used in experimental therapies of some genetic diseases (Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Parkinson disease, cystic fibrosis), as well as autoimmunological diseases and allergies. Clinical trials with the use of genistein in treatment of patients suffering from Alzheimer's diseases and mucopolysaccharidosis type III are ongoing. The employment of differential properties of genistein in attempts to treat each of these diseases is of special interest. In this review, detailed molecular mechanisms of genistein action are summarized in the light of therapies of the above mentioned genetic and immunological diseases, including description of therapeutic potentials of each activity of this isoflavone, efficiency of its action, and its potential use as a drug in the future.

Autophagy stimulation as a promising approach in treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Autophagy is a process of degradation of macromolecules in the cytoplasm, particularly proteins of a long half-life, as well as whole organelles, in eukaryotic cells. Lysosomes play crucial roles during this degradation. Autophagy is a phylogenetically old, and evolutionarily conserved phenomenon which occurs in all eukaryotic cells. It can be found in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, insect Drosophila melanogaster, and mammals, including humans. Its high importance for cell physiology has been recognized, and in fact, dysfunctions causing impaired autophagy are associated with many severe disorders, including cancer and metabolic brain diseases. The types and molecular mechanisms of autophagy have been reviewed recently by others, and in this paper they will be summarized only briefly. Regulatory networks controlling the autophagy process are usually described as negative regulations. In contrast, here, we focus on different ways by which autophagy can be stimulated. In fact, activation of this process by different factors or processes can be considered as a therapeutic strategy in metabolic neurodegenerative diseases. These aspects are reviewed and discussed in this article.