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Broly H, Souquet J, Beck A. Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic: new approaches for accelerated delivery of gene to first-in-human CMC data for recombinant proteins. MAbs 2023; 15:2220150. [PMID: 37278452 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2023.2220150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the urgent need for life-saving treatments, including vaccines, drugs, and therapeutic antibodies, delivered at unprecedented speed. During this period, recombinant antibody research and development cycle times were substantially shortened without compromising quality and safety, thanks to prior knowledge of Chemistry, Manufacturing and Controls (CMC) and integration of new acceleration concepts discussed below. Early product knowledge, selection of a parental cell line with appropriate characteristics, and the application of efficient approaches for generating manufacturing cell lines and manufacturing drug substance from non-clonal cells for preclinical and first-in-human studies are key elements for success. Prioritization of established manufacturing and analytical platforms, implementation of advanced analytical methods, consideration of new approaches for adventitious agent testing and viral clearance studies, and establishing stability claim with less real-time data are additional components that enable an accelerated successful gene to clinical-grade material development strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Broly
- Biotech Process Sciences, Merck-Serono, Corsier-Sur-Vevey, Switzerland
| | - Jonathan Souquet
- Biotech Process Sciences, Merck-Serono, Corsier-Sur-Vevey, Switzerland
| | - Alain Beck
- Biologics CMC and Developability, IRPF, Centre d'Immunologie Pierre Fabre, Saint-Julien-En-Genevois, France
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2
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Laassri M, Mee ET, Connaughton SM, Manukyan H, Gruber M, Rodriguez-Hernandez C, Minor PD, Schepelmann S, Chumakov K, Wood DJ. Detection of bovine viral diarrhoea virus nucleic acid, but not infectious virus, in bovine serum used for human vaccine manufacture. Biologicals 2018; 55:63-70. [PMID: 29941334 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2018.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is a cattle pathogen that has previously been reported to be present in bovine raw materials used in the manufacture of biological products for human use. Seven lots of trivalent measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccine and 1 lot of measles vaccine from the same manufacturer, together with 17 lots of foetal bovine serum (FBS) from different vendors, 4 lots of horse serum, 2 lots of bovine trypsin and 5 lots of porcine trypsin were analysed for BVDV using recently developed techniques, including PCR assays for BVDV detection, a qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence-based virus replication assays, and deep sequencing to identify and genotype BVDV genomes. All FBS lots and one lot of bovine-derived trypsin were PCR-positive for the presence of BVDV genome; in contrast all vaccine lots and the other samples were negative. qRT-PCR based virus replication assay and immunofluorescence-based infection assay detected no infectious BVDV in the PCR-positive samples. Complete BVDV genomes were generated from FBS samples by deep sequencing, and all were BVDV type 1. These data confirmed that BVDV nucleic acid may be present in bovine-derived raw materials, but no infectious virus or genomic RNA was detected in the final vaccine products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majid Laassri
- FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, United Kingdom
| | - Edward T Mee
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, EN6 3QG, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah M Connaughton
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, EN6 3QG, United Kingdom
| | - Hasmik Manukyan
- FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, United Kingdom
| | - Marion Gruber
- FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, United Kingdom
| | - Carmen Rodriguez-Hernandez
- Department of Essential Medicines and Health Products, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 22, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Philip D Minor
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, EN6 3QG, United Kingdom
| | - Silke Schepelmann
- Division of Virology, National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, EN6 3QG, United Kingdom
| | - Konstantin Chumakov
- FDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20993, United Kingdom.
| | - David J Wood
- Department of Essential Medicines and Health Products, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 22, Geneva, Switzerland
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Abstract
The use of new cell substrates for the development of biologicals, particularly tumorigenic and tumor-derived cell lines, can pose a major regulatory challenge due to safety concerns related to the presence of novel viruses, latent and occult viruses including oncogenic viruses, and endogenous retroviruses, since these may not be detected by the currently recommended conventional assays. This report is a summary of our laboratory's experiences using advanced nucleic acid-based technologies to evaluate a Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cell line and the insect Sf9 cell line derived from Spodoptera frugiperda, and presents some ongoing efforts to address the challenges of novel virus detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arifa S Khan
- Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Hailun Ma
- Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Lanyn P Taliaferro
- Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Teresa A Galvin
- Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Syed Shaheduzzaman
- Division of Viral Products, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD, USA
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Yu Q, Liu Y, Du J, Liu Y, Zhang L, Guo T. Porcine circovirus type 1 was undetected in vaccine but could be cultured in the cell substrate of Lanzhou lamb rotavirus vaccine. J Gen Virol 2017; 99:103-108. [PMID: 29165219 PMCID: PMC5882086 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2010, Rotarix was found to be contaminated with infectious porcine circovirus type 1 (PCV1). In China, the Lanzhou lamb rotavirus (LLR) vaccine is the only vaccine used to prevent rotavirus disease. From 2006 to September 2014, more than 54 million doses of LLR vaccines have been lot released. It is a safety issue whether PCV1 is present in the LLR vaccine. Although the cell substrate of LLR, bovine kidney (BK), is different from that of Rotarix, we have investigated the cell’s permissivity for PCV1 by both infectivity and full-length PCR analysis. We have assessed the LLR using a quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay. A total of 171 random batches of LLR final products over a period of 5 years were tested, and no PCV1 was detected (0/171). Infectivity studies showed that two strains of PCV1, the PCV1-prototype, which was derived from PK-15 cells, and the mutant, PCV1-GSK, which was isolated from Rotarix, were capable of replicating in BK cells over a wide m.o.i. ranging from 10 to 0.01. After culture for 6 days, copies of PCV1-prototype DNA were higher than those of PCV1-GSK on average. The genome of the virus was detected at 6 days post-infection. In summary, the LLR vaccine is free of PCV1. Nevertheless, because PCV1 can replicate in the BK cell substrate, manufacturers need to be vigilant in monitoring for this adventitious agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingchuan Yu
- Division of Enteric Viral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Yan Liu
- Division of Enteric Viral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Jialiang Du
- Division of Enteric Viral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Yueyue Liu
- Division of Enteric Viral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Lili Zhang
- Division of Enteric Viral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, PR China
| | - Tai Guo
- Division of Enteric Viral Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control, Beijing 100050, PR China
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Nims RW, Harbell JW. Best practices for the use and evaluation of animal serum as a component of cell culture medium. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2017; 53:682-90. [PMID: 28733930 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-017-0184-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Animal serum is a common additive for cell culture medium and is often required at 5 to 10% (v/v) for the attachment and growth of primary and continuous anchorage-dependent (monolayer) cultures. The use of animal serum in cell culture medium confers several advantages and also some risks. This article discusses the use of animal serum as a component of cell culture medium. The best practices associated with the sourcing, storage, thawing, testing, and mitigation of risk associated with the use of animal sera are among the topics described in this article.
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Klug B, Robertson JS, Condit RC, Seligman SJ, Laderoute MP, Sheets R, Williamson AL, Chapman L, Carbery B, Mac LM, Chen RT. Adventitious agents and live viral vectored vaccines: Considerations for archiving samples of biological materials for retrospective analysis. Vaccine 2016; 34:6617-6625. [PMID: 27317264 PMCID: PMC5130882 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Vaccines are one of the most effective public health medicinal products with an excellent safety record. As vaccines are produced using biological materials, there is a need to safeguard against potential contamination with adventitious agents. Adventitious agents could be inadvertently introduced into a vaccine through starting materials used for production. Therefore, extensive testing has been recommended at specific stages of vaccine manufacture to demonstrate the absence of adventitious agents. Additionally, the incorporation of viral clearance steps in the manufacturing process can aid in reducing the risk of adventitious agent contamination. However, for live viral vaccines, aside from possible purification of the virus or vector, extensive adventitious agent clearance may not be feasible. In the event that an adventitious agent is detected in a vaccine, it is important to determine its origin, evaluate its potential for human infection and pathology, and discern which batches of vaccine may have been affected in order to take risk mitigation action. To achieve this, it is necessary to have archived samples of the vaccine and ancillary components, ideally from developmental through to current batches, as well as samples of the biological materials used in the manufacture of the vaccine, since these are the most likely sources of an adventitious agent. The need for formal guidance on such vaccine sample archiving has been recognized but not fulfilled. We summarize in this paper several prior major cases of vaccine contamination with adventitious agents and provide points for consideration on sample archiving of live recombinant viral vector vaccines for use in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Klug
- Divison Immunology Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, D-63225 Langen, Germany
| | - James S. Robertson
- Independent Adviser (formerly of National Institute for Biological Standards and Control, Potters Bar, EN6 3QG, UK)
| | - Richard C. Condit
- Department of Molecular Genetics & Microbiology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Stephen J. Seligman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, New York Medical College Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| | - Marian P. Laderoute
- Immune System Management Inc., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1S 5R5 (formerly of Blood Safety Contribution Program, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0K9
| | - Rebecca Sheets
- Independent Adviser (formerly of NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20893, USA)
| | - Anna-Lise Williamson
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town and National Health Laboratory Service, Cape Town, South Africa
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Sanders BP, Edo-Matas D, Papic N, Schuitemaker H, Custers JHHV. Synthetic virus seeds for improved vaccine safety: Genetic reconstruction of poliovirus seeds for a PER.C6 cell based inactivated poliovirus vaccine. Vaccine 2015; 33:5498-5502. [PMID: 26362098 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.08.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Safety of vaccines can be compromised by contamination with adventitious agents. One potential source of adventitious agents is a vaccine seed, typically derived from historic clinical isolates with poorly defined origins. Here we generated synthetic poliovirus seeds derived from chemically synthesized DNA plasmids encoding the sequence of wild-type poliovirus strains used in marketed inactivated poliovirus vaccines. The synthetic strains were phenotypically identical to wild-type polioviruses as shown by equivalent infectious titers in culture supernatant and antigenic content, even when infection cultures are scaled up to 10-25L bioreactors. Moreover, the synthetic seeds were genetically stable upon extended passaging on the PER.C6 cell culture platform. Use of synthetic seeds produced on the serum-free PER.C6 cell platform ensures a perfectly documented seed history and maximum control over starting materials. It provides an opportunity to maximize vaccine safety which increases the prospect of a vaccine end product that is free from adventitious agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara P Sanders
- Janssen Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Archimedesweg 4, 2333CN Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Diana Edo-Matas
- Janssen Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Archimedesweg 4, 2333CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Natasa Papic
- Janssen Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Archimedesweg 4, 2333CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hanneke Schuitemaker
- Janssen Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Archimedesweg 4, 2333CN Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jerome H H V Custers
- Janssen Infectious Diseases and Vaccines, Archimedesweg 4, 2333CN Leiden, The Netherlands
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Furtak VA, Dabrazhynetskaya A, Volokhov DV, Chizhikov V. Use of tangential flow filtration for improving detection of viral adventitious agents in cell substrates. Biologicals 2014; 43:23-30. [PMID: 25432087 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2014.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Revised: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we assessed the feasibility of tangential flow filtration (TFF) for primary concentration of viral adventitious agents (AAs) from large volumes of cell substrate-derived samples, such as cell-free Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) culture supernatants (500 mL) and CHO cell lysates (50 mL), prior to virus detection in them by nucleic acid-based methods (i.e., qPCR and massively parallel sequencing (MPS). The study was conducted using the samples spiked with four model DNA viruses (bovine herpesvirus type 4, human adenovirus type 5, simian polyomavirus SV-40, and bovine parvovirus). The results showed that the combined TFF/MPS approach enables reliable detection of as low as 1000 genome equivalents (GE) of each of the four viruses spiked into the cell substrate samples. The final achieved sensitivities of 2 GE/mL for cell culture supernatant and 20 GE/mL for cell lysate make this approach more sensitive than virus-specific PCR and qPCR assays. The study results allowed us to propose that TFF might be useful and valuable method for simple and rapid concentration of potential AAs in cell substrate samples prior to AAs detection by conventional in vivo, in vitro, or molecular methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vyacheslav A Furtak
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Alena Dabrazhynetskaya
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Dmitriy V Volokhov
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Vladimir Chizhikov
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, USA.
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Richards B, Cao S, Plavsic M, Pomponio R, Davies C, Mattaliano R, Madden S, Klinger K, Palermo A. Detection of adventitious agents using next-generation sequencing. PDA J Pharm Sci Technol 2014; 68:651-660. [PMID: 25475640 DOI: 10.5731/pdajpst.2014.01025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Next-generation sequencing has been evaluated at Genzyme as a means of identifying bioreactor contaminants due to its capability for detection of known and novel microbial species. In this approach, data obtained from next-generation sequencing is used to interrogate databases containing genomic sequences and identities of potential adventitious agents. We describe here the use of this approach to help identify the causative agent of a bioreactor contamination. We also present the results of spiking experiments to establish the limits of detection for DNA viruses, RNA viruses, and bacteria, in a background of Chinese hamster ovary cells, a cell line used for production of many human therapeutics. Using Illumina sequencing-based detection, all of the viruses included in this study were detected at less than 1 copy per cell, and bacteria were detected at 0.001 copy per cell. Thus, next-generation sequencing-based detection of adventitious agents is a valuable approach that can fill a critical unmet need in the detection of known and novel microorganisms in biopharmaceutical manufacturing. LAY ABSTRACT Because biological products are manufactured in cells, the living environment must be kept sterile. Any introduction of microorganisms into the culture vessel may affect the growth and other biological properties of the cells or contaminate the product. It is therefore important to monitor the culture for such contaminants, but many methods can only detect a specific microorganism. In this study, we show that next-generation sequencing-based detection is a sensitive and complementary approach that can potentially detect a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Robert Mattaliano
- Biologics Research & Development, Genzyme, A Sanofi Company, Framingham, MA, USA
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Abstract
UNLABELLED From an industrial perspective, the conventional in vitro and in vivo assays used for detection of viral contaminants have shown their limitations, as illustrated by the unfortunate detection of porcine circovirus contamination in a licensed rotavirus vaccine. This contamination event illustrates the gaps within the existing adventitious agent strategy and the potential use of new broader molecular detection methods. This paper serves to summarize current testing approaches and challenges, along with opportunities for the use of these new technologies. LAY ABSTRACT Testing of biological products is required to ensure the safety of patients. Recently, a licensed vaccine was found to be contaminated with a virus. This contamination did not cause a safety concern to the patients; however, it highlights the need for using new testing methods to control our biological products. This paper introduces the benefits of these new tests and outlines the challenges with the current tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Mallet
- Sanofi Pasteur, Product Conception and Development, Marcy L'Etoile, France; and
| | - Lucy Gisonni-Lex
- Sanofi Pasteur, Analytical Research and Development North America, Toronto, Ontario, Canada,
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Gombold J, Karakasidis S, Niksa P, Podczasy J, Neumann K, Richardson J, Sane N, Johnson-Leva R, Randolph V, Sadoff J, Minor P, Schmidt A, Duncan P, Sheets RL. Systematic evaluation of in vitro and in vivo adventitious virus assays for the detection of viral contamination of cell banks and biological products. Vaccine 2014; 32:2916-26. [PMID: 24681273 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Viral vaccines and the cell substrates used to manufacture them are subjected to tests for adventitious agents, including viruses, contaminate. Some of the compendial methods (in vivo and in vitro in cell culture) were established in the mid-20th century. These methods have not been subjected to current assay validation, as new methods would need to be. This study was undertaken to provide insight into the breadth (selectivity) and sensitivity (limit of detection) of the routine methods, two such validation parameters. Sixteen viral stocks were prepared and characterized. These stocks were tested in serial dilutions by the routine methods to establish which viruses were detected by which methods and above what limit of detection. Sixteen out of sixteen viruses were detected in vitro, though one (bovine viral diarrhea virus) required special conditions to detect and another (rubella virus) was detected with low sensitivity. Many were detected at levels below 1 TCID50 or PFU (titers were established on the production cell line in most cases). In contrast, in vivo, only 6/11 viruses were detected, and 4 of these were detected only at amounts one or more logs above 1 TCID50 or PFU. Only influenza virus and vesicular stomatitis virus were detected at lower amounts in vivo than in vitro. Given the call to reduce, refine, or replace (3Rs) the use of animals in product safety testing and the emergence of new technologies for the detection of viruses, a re-examination of the current adventitious virus testing strategies seems warranted. Suggested pathways forward are offered.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Gombold
- Charles River Laboratories, 358 Technology Drive, Malvern, PA 19355, United States
| | - Stephen Karakasidis
- Charles River Laboratories, 358 Technology Drive, Malvern, PA 19355, United States
| | - Paula Niksa
- Charles River Laboratories, 251 Ballardvale St. Wilmington, MA 01887, United States
| | - John Podczasy
- Charles River Laboratories, 358 Technology Drive, Malvern, PA 19355, United States
| | - Kitti Neumann
- Charles River Laboratories, 358 Technology Drive, Malvern, PA 19355, United States
| | - James Richardson
- Advanced BioScience Laboratories, 9800 Medical Center Dr. Bldg. D, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Nandini Sane
- Advanced BioScience Laboratories, 9800 Medical Center Dr. Bldg. D, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Renita Johnson-Leva
- Advanced BioScience Laboratories, 9800 Medical Center Dr. Bldg. D, Rockville, MD 20850, United States
| | - Valerie Randolph
- Wyeth, 401N Middletown Rd., Pearl River, NY 10965, United States
| | - Jerald Sadoff
- Crucell, Newtonweg 1, 2333 CP Leiden, PO Box 2048, 2301 CA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Phillip Minor
- National Institute for Biologics Standards and Control, Blanche Lane, South Mimms, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire EN6 3QG, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Schmidt
- GSK Vaccines, Rue de l'Insitut 89, 1330 Rixensart, Belgium (formerly NIH/NIAID)
| | - Paul Duncan
- Merck and Co., Inc., WP17-101, 770 Sumneytown Pike, P.O. Box 4, West Point, PA 19486, United States
| | - Rebecca L Sheets
- NIH/NIAID Division of AIDS, 6700B Rockledge Dr., Rm. 5145, Bethesda, MD 20892, United States.
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