The Modularity of Dysgraphia

Research regarding dysgraphia, an impairment in writing, is attaining more attention in recent times. The existing studies on dysgraphia draw insights from cognitive, behavioural, neurological, and genetic fields of knowledge. However, these multiple studies on dysgraphia fail to illustrate how these cognitive, behavioural, neurological, and genetic systems interact and intersect in dysgraphia. Therefore, the studies could not offer a comprehensive understanding of dysgraphia. In order to fill this gap, the review attempts to study dysgraphia using the notion of modularity by accommodating insights from cognitive, behavioural, neurological, and genetic aspects of dysgraphia. Such a profound understanding could facilitate an early diagnosis and holistic intervention towards dysgraphia.

A Longitudinal Investigation of the Relationship Between Trauma-Related Cognitive Processes and Internalising and Externalising Psychopathology in Young People in Out-of-Home Care

Young people in out-of-home care are at increased risk of developing a range of posttrauma mental health difficulties, including PTSD, but more commonly anxiety, depression and externalising symptoms. Cognitive models of PTSD indicate that trauma-related maladaptive appraisals, coping strategies and trauma memory qualities are key processes in the development and maintenance of PTSD, yet there has been limited investigation of the potential role of these processes in broader posttrauma psychopathology, particularly in young people who have been exposed to complex, rather than acute, trauma. We recruited 120 10-18 years olds in out-of-home care, and their caregivers, who completed assessments at two time points: baseline and 12-month follow-up. Young people completed self-report measures of trauma-related maladaptive appraisals, coping strategies and trauma-memory qualities, as well as reporting on PTSD, anxiety, depression and externalising symptoms. Carers also reported on internalising and externalising symptoms. We found that all three cognitive processes were associated with baseline self-reported internalising symptoms, with maladaptive appraisals most robustly associated with both anxiety and depression. Changes in all three processes over 12-months predicted a change in self-reported internalising and externalising symptoms, with maladaptive appraisals and coping predicting anxiety symptoms, and coping uniquely predicting depression and externalising symptoms. Effects remained after controlling for co-occurring PTSD symptoms. Findings were not replicated when using carer-reported symptoms. These findings suggest that existing cognitive models of PTSD may also usefully explain broader posttrauma depression, anxiety and externalising symptoms in young people who have experienced maltreatment and live in out-of-home care. Clinical implications are discussed.

Serotonin promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) predicts biased attention for emotion stimuli: Preliminary evidence of moderation by the social environment

A number of studies have found an association between attentional bias for negative stimuli and variation in the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR). The current project examined whether a positive social environment mitigates this association. More specifically, we examined the relationship between attentional bias on the dot-probe task, variation in the 5-HTTLPR and current social support among a community sample of adults (N=216). Consistent with prior research, the S/L_G homozygotes were more likely than the other genotype groups to have a negative attention bias. However, social support moderated the association between 5-HTTLPR variation and attentional bias. The S/L_G homozygote group was particularly likely to exhibit greater attentional bias towards negative stimuli at low levels of social support. However, as social support improved, negative attention bias decreased. Findings suggest that supportive environments may attenuate genetic associations with negative attention bias.

Individual differences in positivity offset and negativity bias: Gender-specific associations with two serotonin receptor genes

Individual differences in the evaluation of affective stimuli, such as the positivity offset and negativity bias may have a biological basis. We tested whether two SNPs (HTR2A; 102T>C and HTR1A; 1019C>G) related to serotonin receptor function, a biological pathway associated with affective regulation, were differentially related to positivity offset and negativity bias for males and females. Participants were 109 cigarette smokers who rated a series of affective stimuli to assess reactions to positive and negative pictures. Gender × genotype interactions were found for both SNPs. Males with the 102T allele showed a greater positivity offset than males with the 102C allele. For females, in contrast, the 1019C allele was associated with a greater positivity offset than the 1019G allele, whereas the 102T allele was associated with a greater negativity bias than the 102C allele. Identifying how gender differences may moderate the effect of serotonin receptor genes on affective information processing may provide insight into their role in guiding behavior and regulating affect.

Ontogeny of Social Relations and Coalition Formation in Common Ravens (Corvus corax)

The social intelligence hypothesis, originally developed for primates to explain their high intelligence and large relative brain size, assumes that challenges posed by social life in complex societies with many group members lead to the evolution of advanced cognitive abilities. In birds, pair-bonded species have larger brains than non-pair bonded species, indicating that the quality of social relationships better predicts social complexity than group size. Ravens are a long-term monogamous and territorial species, renowned for their sophisticated socio-cognitive skills and complex social relationships. Notably, during their early years they live in fission-fusion-like non-breeder societies in which social relationships could be of particular importance. Here we observed the development of dominance and affiliative relationships in 12 hand-raised captive ravens, examining the influence of age, sex and kinship on social interactions. Furthermore, we investigated at which developmental step a stable hierarchy emerged, whether third-party interventions played a role and how selectively birds intervened in others' conflicts. At 4-5 months post-fledging, we found an increase in socio-positive behaviour and a decrease in aggression, along with the establishment of a linear dominance rank hierarchy. In line with kin selection theory, siblings exhibited a greater degree of tolerance and engaged in more socio-positive behaviour. In their first few months, ravens frequently intervened in others' conflicts but supported mainly the aggressor; later on, their support became more selective towards kin and close social partners. These findings indicate that ravens engage in sophisticated social behaviours and form stable relationships already in their first year of life.

Genetic Analysis of the Touch Response in Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Both mammals and zebrafish possess mechanosensory neurons that detect tactile sensation via free nerve endings. However, the basis for mechanotransduction and the unique cellular properties of these sensory neurons are poorly understood. We review the advantages of zebrafish for studies of the biological mechanisms involved in touch sensitivity. Importantly, Granato and colleagues (1996) demonstrated that a simple touch assay efficiently recovers mutations that affect sensory neurons.