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Conlon CL, Schuler KL, Lejeune M, Whipps CM. NOVEL REPORT OF THE EUROPEAN VARIANT OF ECHINOCOCCUS MULTILOCULARIS IN COYOTES (CANIS LATRANS) IN NEW YORK STATE. J Parasitol 2023; 109:357-361. [PMID: 37527278 PMCID: PMC10658865 DOI: 10.1645/22-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Echinococcus multilocularis is a zoonotic cestode that can infect wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. In humans, infection with the larval stage of the parasite causes the disease alveolar echinococcosis, which can be fatal if left untreated. Surveillance for the parasite in New York State occurred during the 2021-2022 coyote (Canis latrans) hunting season. Fecal samples and the gastrointestinal tracts (GIT) from 43 coyote carcasses were collected from hunters and trappers across 8 counties. Fecal samples were screened for E. multilocularis DNA using a multiplex PCR. Three samples tested positive for E. multilocularis DNA. Subsequently, adult cestodes were collected from GIT samples using the sedimentation, filtration, and counting technique. Phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from the nad2 and cob genes from individual worms indicated these New York sequences cluster with E. multilocularis sequences from Europe. This is the first report of adult E. multilocularis cestodes in New York State, as well as the first detection of the European haplotype of E. multilocularis in wildlife in the northeastern United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne L. Conlon
- SUNY-ESF, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Environmental Biology, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, New York 13210
| | - Krysten L. Schuler
- Cornell University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Health Diagnostic Center, 240 Farrier Road, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Manigandan Lejeune
- Cornell University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Health Diagnostic Center, 240 Farrier Road, Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Christopher M. Whipps
- SUNY-ESF, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Environmental Biology, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, New York 13210
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Henger CS, Hargous E, Nagy CM, Weckel M, Wultsch C, Krampis K, Duncan N, Gormezano L, Munshi-South J. DNA metabarcoding reveals that coyotes in New York City consume wide variety of native prey species and human food. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13788. [PMID: 36164598 PMCID: PMC9508883 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Carnivores are currently colonizing cities where they were previously absent. These urban environments are novel ecosystems characterized by habitat degradation and fragmentation, availability of human food, and different prey assemblages than surrounding areas. Coyotes (Canis latrans) established a breeding population in New York City (NYC) over the last few decades, but their ecology within NYC is poorly understood. In this study, we used non-invasive scat sampling and DNA metabarcoding to profile vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant dietary items with the goal to compare the diets of urban coyotes to those inhabiting non-urban areas. We found that both urban and non-urban coyotes consumed a variety of plants and animals as well as human food. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) were an important food item for coyotes within and outside NYC. In contrast, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were mainly eaten by coyotes inhabiting non-urban areas. Domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) was the human food item found in most scats from both urban and non-urban coyotes. Domestic cats (Felis catus) were consumed by urban coyotes but were detected in only a small proportion of the scats (<5%), which differs markedly from high rates of cat depredation in some other cities. In addition, we compared our genetic metabarcoding analysis to a morphological analysis of the same scat samples. We found that the detection similarity between the two methods was low and it varied depending on the type of diet item.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol S. Henger
- Louis Calder Biological Field Station, Fordham University, Armonk, New York, United States
| | - Emily Hargous
- Louis Calder Biological Field Station, Fordham University, Armonk, New York, United States
| | | | - Mark Weckel
- American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States
| | - Claudia Wultsch
- American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States,Bioinformatics and Computational Genomics Laboratory, City University of New York, Hunter College, New York, New York, United States
| | - Konstantinos Krampis
- Bioinformatics and Computational Genomics Laboratory, City University of New York, Hunter College, New York, New York, United States,Department of Biological Sciences, City University of New York, Hunter College, New York, New York, United States,Institute of Computational Biomedicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, United States
| | - Neil Duncan
- American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States
| | - Linda Gormezano
- American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, United States
| | - Jason Munshi-South
- Louis Calder Biological Field Station, Fordham University, Armonk, New York, United States
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3
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Dell B, Newman SJ, Purple K, Miller B, Ramsay E, Donnell R, Gerhold RW. Retrospective investigation of Echinococcus canadensis emergence in translocated elk (Cervus canadensis) in Tennessee, USA, and examination of canid definitive hosts. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:330. [PMID: 32605660 PMCID: PMC7325358 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04198-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Few reports of Echinococcus spp. have been described in the USA; however, the geographical distribution of Echinococcus spp. in wild hosts is increasing consequent to human activities. In the early 2000's, 253 elk (Cervus canadensis) originating from Alberta, Canada were released into the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and North Cumberland Wildlife Management Area in an effort to re-establish their historical range. METHODS We investigated the prevalence of Echinococcus spp. in re-established elk populations in the North Cumberland Wildlife Management Area and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park via a retrospective analysis of banked elk tissues and helminth examinations on intestinal contents from coyotes (Canis latrans) from the North Cumberland Wildlife Management Area. RESULTS Four elk were PCR and sequence positive for E. canadensis. Each sequence had 98% or greater coverage and identity to multiple E. canadensis genotypes on GenBank. Adult Echinococcus spp. were not detected in any of the coyotes examined in this study. CONCLUSIONS Continued surveillance of this disease in susceptible species in these areas is warranted, and these data further underscore the risk of zoonotic pathogen introduction secondary to wildlife translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- BreeAnna Dell
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996 USA
| | - Shelley J. Newman
- Long Island University College of Veterinary Medicine, 720 Northern Boulevard, Brookville, NY 11548 USA
| | - Kathryn Purple
- Department of Biology, Lincoln Memorial University, 6965 Cumberland Gap Parkway, Harrogate, TN 37752 USA
| | - Brad Miller
- Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, 3030 Wildlife Way, Morristown, TN 37814 USA
| | - Edward Ramsay
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996 USA
| | - Robert Donnell
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996 USA
| | - Richard W. Gerhold
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996 USA
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Hough SE, Lockhart JM, Loughry WJ, Bielmyer-Fraser GK. Comparative metal analysis in a species assemblage of mammals from the Southeastern United States. Environ Monit Assess 2020; 192:306. [PMID: 32323028 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-020-08259-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Metal pollution commonly occurs in many terrestrial environments and may pose a threat for the animals inhabiting such areas. Here, we present concentrations of six metals (cadmium [Cd], copper [Cu], nickel [Ni], lead [Pb], selenium [Se], and zinc [Zn]) in the liver tissues of seven species of mammals obtained from a study that examined the impact of mesopredator removal on northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations. A total of 1326 samples were collected from 2003 to 2006 at four sites in southwest Georgia and north Florida from nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus), bobcats (Lynx rufus), feral cats (Felis catus), coyotes (Canis latrans), grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and raccoons (Procyon lotor). Data from armadillos, bobcats, opossums, and raccoons were published previously to examine age, sex, spatial (between sites), and temporal (between years) variation. In this paper, we present similar comparisons for the remaining three species as well as comparisons of metal concentrations among all seven species. Concentrations of Cu and Pb exhibited strong negative relationships with body weight in coyotes, while Ni was positively correlated with weight in feral cats. Concentrations of these metals, as well as the other two tested (Cd and Zn), were not significantly correlated with one another in any of the three species. The only sex difference in liver metal concentrations was observed in female feral cats, which had higher levels of Pb than did males. Coyotes exhibited significant differences in Cu concentrations between sites and between years (2005 versus 2006). We also found significant differences between sites in Pb concentrations for both feral cats and grey foxes. There were significant differences in metal concentrations among all seven species for all metals except Cd. With the exception of Cd and Se (tested only in bobcats and opossums), a three-way ANOVA with species, year, and site as the three factors revealed significant differences among species for every metal but only a single main effect of year for Cu, and no main effects of site. In sum, our results provide an extensive survey of metal concentrations in a diverse assemblage of mammals and suggest that metal accumulation may be heavily influenced by species identity, which in turn may reflect ecological lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Hough
- Department of Biology, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, 31698-0015, USA
| | - J Mitchell Lockhart
- Department of Biology, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, 31698-0015, USA
| | - W J Loughry
- Department of Biology, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, 31698-0015, USA
| | - Gretchen K Bielmyer-Fraser
- Department of Chemistry, Jacksonville University, 2800 University Blvd. North, Jacksonville, FL, 32211, USA.
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Kotwa JD, Jardine CM, Berke O, Pearl DL, Mercer NJ, Peregrine AS. Prevalence and distribution of Dirofilaria immitis infection in wild canids in southern Ontario. Vet Parasitol Reg Stud Reports 2019; 18:100349. [PMID: 31796196 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Wild canids represent a potential reservoir host for Dirofilaria immitis infection in dogs in Ontario. Since wild canids are not protected by chemoprophylaxis, understanding the epidemiology of D. immmitis in these populations may help elucidate the background risk of infection for dogs. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and distribution of D. immitis infection in wild canids across southern Ontario. From February 2016 to March 2017, 290 wild canid carcasses (273 coyotes and 17 foxes) were collected from across the region and assessed for the presence of D. immitis at the time of necropsy. Overall, D. immitis infection was identified in 4.8% (95% CI 2.8-8.0%) of these wild canid carcasses. Among coyotes, 5.1% (95% CI 3.0-8.5%) were positive; no evidence of D. immitis was found in the 17 foxes. Dirofilaria immitis infections in wild canids were detected in two regions of southern Ontario: 12 of the 14 D. immitis infections were detected in the south-western region and two were detected in the eastern region. Our findings provide preliminary insights into the prevalence and geographical distribution of D. immitis in coyotes and foxes in southern Ontario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon D Kotwa
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Claire M Jardine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada; Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Olaf Berke
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - David L Pearl
- Department of Population Medicine, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicola J Mercer
- Wellington-Dufferin-Guelph Public Health, Guelph, Ontario N1G 0E1, Canada
| | - Andrew S Peregrine
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
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DeCandia AL, Leverett KN, vonHoldt BM. Of microbes and mange: consistent changes in the skin microbiome of three canid species infected with Sarcoptes scabiei mites. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:488. [PMID: 31619277 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3724-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sarcoptic mange is a highly contagious skin disease caused by the ectoparasitic mite Sarcoptes scabiei. Although it afflicts over 100 mammal species worldwide, sarcoptic mange remains a disease obscured by variability at the individual, population and species levels. Amid this variability, it is critical to identify consistent drivers of morbidity, particularly at the skin barrier. Methods Using culture-independent next generation sequencing, we characterized the skin microbiome of three species of North American canids: coyotes (Canis latrans), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). We compared alpha and beta diversity between mange-infected and uninfected canids using the Kruskal–Wallis test and multivariate analysis of variance with permutation. We used analysis of composition of microbes and gneiss balances to perform differential abundance testing between infection groups. Results We found remarkably consistent signatures of microbial dysbiosis associated with mange infection. Across genera, mange-infected canids exhibited reduced microbial diversity, altered community composition and increased abundance of opportunistic pathogens. The primary bacteria comprising secondary infections were Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, previously associated with canid ear and skin infections, and Corynebacterium spp., previously found among the gut flora of S. scabiei mites and hematophagous arthropods. Conclusions This evidence suggests that sarcoptic mange infection consistently alters the canid skin microbiome and facilitates secondary bacterial infection, as seen in humans and other mammals infected with S. scabiei mites. These results provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of mange at the skin barrier of North American canids and can inspire novel treatment strategies. By adopting a “One Health” framework that considers mites, microbes and the potential for interspecies transmission, we can better elucidate the patterns and processes underlying this ubiquitous and enigmatic disease.![]()
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Maas M, van Roon A, Dam-Deisz C, Opsteegh M, Massolo A, Deksne G, Teunis P, van der Giessen J. Evaluation by latent class analysis of a magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by real-time qPCR as a new diagnostic method for detection of Echinococcus multilocularis in definitive hosts. Vet Parasitol 2016; 230:20-24. [PMID: 27884437 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A new method, based on a magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR, was developed for the detection of the zoonotic parasite Echinococcus multilocularis in definitive hosts. Latent class analysis was used to compare this new method with the currently used phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR. In total, 60 red foxes and coyotes from three different locations were tested with both molecular methods and the sedimentation and counting technique (SCT) or intestinal scraping technique (IST). Though based on a limited number of samples, it could be established that the magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR showed similar sensitivity and specificity as the currently used phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR. All methods have a high specificity as shown by Bayesian latent class analysis. Both molecular assays have higher sensitivities than the combined SCT and IST, though the uncertainties in sensitivity estimates were wide for all assays tested. The magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR has the advantage of not requiring hazardous chemicals like the phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR. This supports the replacement of the phenol-chloroform DNA extraction followed by single tube nested PCR by the magnetic capture based DNA extraction followed by qPCR for molecular detection of E. multilocularis in definitive hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Maas
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
| | - Annika van Roon
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Cecile Dam-Deisz
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marieke Opsteegh
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Alessandro Massolo
- Wildlife Ecology and Spatial Epidemiology Lab (WEaSEL), Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive, NW, Calgary, AB, T2N 4Z6, Canada
| | - Gunita Deksne
- Institute of Food Safety, Animal Health and Environment "BIOR", Lejupes Street 3, LV-1076 Riga, Latvia
| | - Peter Teunis
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Joke van der Giessen
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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Schell CJ, Young JK, Lonsdorf EV, Mateo JM, Santymire RM. Olfactory attractants and parity affect prenatal androgens and territoriality of coyote breeding pairs. Physiol Behav 2016; 165:43-54. [PMID: 27378509 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Hormones are fundamental mediators of personality traits intimately linked with reproductive success. Hence, alterations to endocrine factors may dramatically affect individual behavior that has subsequent fitness consequences. Yet it is unclear how hormonal or behavioral traits change with environmental stressors or over multiple reproductive opportunities, particularly for biparental fauna. To simulate an environmental stressor, we exposed captive coyote (Canis latrans) pairs to novel coyote odor attractants (i.e. commercial scent lures) mid-gestation to influence territorial behaviors, fecal glucocorticoid (FGMs) and fecal androgen metabolites (FAMs). In addition, we observed coyote pairs as first-time and experienced breeders to assess the influence of parity on our measures. Treatment pairs received the odors four times over a 20-day period, while control pairs received water. Odor-treated pairs scent-marked (e.g. urinated, ground scratched) and investigated odors more frequently than control pairs, and had higher FAMs when odors were provided. Pairs had higher FAMs as first-time versus experienced breeders, indicating that parity also affected androgen production during gestation. Moreover, repeatability in scent-marking behaviors corresponded with FGMs and FAMs, implying that coyote territoriality during gestation is underpinned by individually-specific hormone profiles. Our results suggest coyote androgens during gestation are sensitive to conspecific olfactory stimuli and prior breeding experience. Consequently, fluctuations in social or other environmental stimuli as well as increasing parity may acutely affect coyote traits essential to reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Schell
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, IL 60637, United States.
| | - Julie K Young
- USDA-WS-NWRC, Predator Research Facility, Department of Wildland Resources, Utah State University, USU - BNR 163, Logan, UT 84322, United States
| | - Elizabeth V Lonsdorf
- Department of Psychology, Franklin and Marshall College, P.O. Box 3003, Lancaster, PA 17603, United States
| | - Jill M Mateo
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, IL 60637, United States
| | - Rachel M Santymire
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, 1025 E. 57th Street, Culver Hall 402, Chicago, IL 60637, United States; Department of Conservation and Science, Lincoln Park Zoo, 2001 N. Clark St., Chicago, IL 60614, United States
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Gadbois S, Sievert O, Reeve C, Harrington FH, Fentress JC. Revisiting the concept of behavior patterns in animal behavior with an example from food-caching sequences in wolves (Canis lupus), coyotes (Canis latrans), and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Behav Processes 2014; 110:3-14. [PMID: 25446624 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
We discuss the history, conceptualization, and relevance of behavior patterns in modern ethology by explaining the evolution of the concepts of fixed action patterns and modal action patterns. We present the movement toward a more flexible concept of natural action sequences with significant degrees of (production and expressive) freedom. An example is presented with the food caching behavior of three Canidae species: red fox (Vulpes vulpes), coyote (Canis latrans) and gray wolf (Canis lupus). Evolutionary, ecological, and neuroecological/neuroethological arguments are presented to explain the difference in levels of complexity and stereotypy between Canis and Vulpes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Canine Behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Gadbois
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, 1355 Oxford Street, PO BOX 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2.
| | - Olivia Sievert
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, 1355 Oxford Street, PO BOX 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2.
| | - Catherine Reeve
- Department of Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, 1355 Oxford Street, PO BOX 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2.
| | - F H Harrington
- Department of Psychology, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3M 2J6.
| | - J C Fentress
- 30312 Fox Hollow Road, Eugene, OR 97405, United States.
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