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Rees SWP, Rees TA, Leung E, Walker CS, Barker D, Pilkington LI. Incorporation of a Nitric Oxide Donating Motif into Novel PC-PLC Inhibitors Provides Enhanced Anti-Proliferative Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222111518. [PMID: 34768947 PMCID: PMC8583960 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibition of phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C (PC-PLC) has previously been shown to be a potential target for novel cancer therapeutics. One downstream consequence of PC-PLC activity is the activation of NF-κB, a nuclear transcription factor responsible for transcribing genes related to oncogenic traits, such as proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, and cancer cell survival. Another biological pathway linked to NF-κB is the exogenous delivery of nitric oxide (NO), which decreases NF-κB activity through an apparent negative-feedback loop. In this study, we designed and synthesised 13 novel NO-releasing derivatives of our previously reported class of PC-PLC inhibitors, 2-morpholinobenzoic acids. These molecules contained a secondary benzylamine group, which was readily nitrosylated and subsequently confirmed to release NO in vitro using a DAF-FM fluorescence-based assay. It was then discovered that these NO-releasing derivatives possessed significantly improved anti-proliferative activity in both MDA-MB-231 and HCT116 cancer cell lines compared to their non-nitrosylated parent compounds. These results confirmed that the inclusion of an exogenous NO-releasing functional group onto a known PC-PLC inhibitor enhances anti-proliferative activity and that this relationship can be exploited in order to further improve the anti-proliferative activity of current/future PC-PLC inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun W. P. Rees
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
| | - Tayla A. Rees
- School of Biological Science, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; (T.A.R.); (C.S.W.)
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
| | - Euphemia Leung
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, University of Auckland, Grafton, Auckland 1023, New Zealand
| | - Christopher S. Walker
- School of Biological Science, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand; (T.A.R.); (C.S.W.)
- Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
| | - David Barker
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
- Correspondence: (D.B.); (L.I.P.)
| | - Lisa I. Pilkington
- School of Chemical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
- Correspondence: (D.B.); (L.I.P.)
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Abstract
Nitrogen (N) is one of the most important nutrients which exist in both inorganic and organic forms. Plants assimilate inorganic form of N [nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-) or ammonium (NH4+)] and incorporate into amino acids. The metabolism of N involves a series of events such as sensing, uptake, and assimilation. The initial stage is sensing, triggered by nitrate or ammonium signals initiating signal transduction processes in N metabolism. The assimilation pathway initiates with NO3-/NH4+ transport to roots via specific high and low affinity (HATs and LATs) nitrate transporters or directly via ammonium transporters (AMTs). In cytosol the NO3- is reduced to NO2- by cytosolic nitrate reductase (NR) and the produced NO2- is further reduced to NH4+ by nitrite reductase (NiR) in plastids. NR has capability to reduce NO2- to nitric oxide (NO) under specific conditions such as hypoxia, low pH, and pathogen infection. The produced NO acts as a signal for wide range of processes such as plant growth development and stress. Here, we provide methods to measure NR activity, NO2- levels, and NO production in plant tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aakanksha Wany
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, India.
| | - Pradeep Kumar Pathak
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, India
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Palygin O, Ilatovskaya DV, Levchenko V, Endres BT, Geurts AM, Staruschenko A. Nitric oxide production by glomerular podocytes. Nitric Oxide 2017; 72:24-31. [PMID: 29128399 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Revised: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Nitric Oxide (NO), a potent vasodilator and vital signaling molecule, has been shown to contribute to the regulation of glomerular ultrafiltration. However, whether changes in NO occur in podocytes during the pathogenesis of salt-sensitive hypertension has not yet been thoroughly examined. We showed here that podocytes produce NO, and further hypothesized that hypertensive animals would exhibit reduced NO production in these cells in response to various paracrine factors, which might contribute to the damage of glomeruli filtration barrier and development of proteinuria. To test this, we isolated glomeruli from the kidneys of Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats fed a low salt (LS; 0.4% NaCl) or high salt (HS; 4% NaCl, 3 weeks) diets and loaded podocytes with either a combination of NO and Ca2+ fluorophores (DAF-FM and Fura Red, respectively) or DAF-FM alone. Changes in fluorescence were observed with confocal microscopy in response to adenosine triphosphate (ATP), angiotensin II (Ang II), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Application of Ang II resulted in activation of both NO and intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) transients. In contrast, ATP promoted [Ca2+]i transients, but did not have any effects on NO production. SS rats fed a HS diet for 3 weeks demonstrated impaired NO production: the response to Ang II or H2O2 in podocytes of glomeruli isolated from SS rats fed a HS diet was significantly reduced compared to rats fed a LS diet. Therefore, glomerular podocytes from hypertensive rats showed a diminished NO release in response to Ang II or oxidative stress, suggesting that podocytic NO signaling is dysfunctional in this condition and likely contributes to the development of kidney injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg Palygin
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Daria V Ilatovskaya
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Vladislav Levchenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Bradley T Endres
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Aron M Geurts
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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Jin P, Wiraja C, Zhao J, Zhang J, Zheng L, Xu C. Nitric Oxide Nanosensors for Predicting the Development of Osteoarthritis in Rat Model. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2017; 9:25128-25137. [PMID: 28691484 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b06404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic arthritic disease that causes the overproduction of inflammatory factors such as nitric oxide (NO). This study develops a NO nanosensor to predict the OA development. The nanosensor is synthesized by encapsulating the NO sensing molecules (i.e., 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein Diaminofluorescein-FM (DAF-FM)) within the biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles. In vitro, the nanosensor allows the monitoring of the NO release in interleukin-1β-stimulated chondrocytes and the alleviated effect of NG-monomethyl-l-arginine (a NO inhibitor) and andrographolide (an anti-inflammatory agent). In the rat OA model, it permits the quantification of NO level in joint fluid. The proposed NO nanosensor may facilitate a noninvasive and real-time evaluation of the OA development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christian Wiraja
- NTU-Northwestern Institute for Nanomedicine, Nanyang Technological University , 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
| | | | | | | | - Chenjie Xu
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University , 70 Nanyang Drive, 637457 Singapore
- NTU-Northwestern Institute for Nanomedicine, Nanyang Technological University , 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798 Singapore
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Agurto A, Vielma AH, Cadiz B, Couve E, Schmachtenberg O. NO signaling in retinal bipolar cells. Exp Eye Res 2017; 161:30-35. [PMID: 28579034 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2017.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a neuromodulator involved in physiological and pathological processes in the retina. In the inner retina, a subgroup of amacrine cells have been shown to synthesize NO, but bipolar cells remain controversial as NO sources. This study correlates NO synthesis in dark-adapted retinas, through labeling with the NO marker DAF-FM, with neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and inducible NOS expression, and presence of the NO receptor soluble guanylate cyclase in bipolar cells. NO containing bipolar cells were morphologically identified by dialysis of DAF fluorescent cells with intracellular dyes, or by DAF labeling followed by immunohistochemistry for nNOS and other cellular markers. DAF fluorescence was observed in all types of bipolar cells that could be identified, but the most intense DAF fluorescence was observed in bipolar cells with severed processes, supporting pathological NO signaling. Among nNOS expressing bipolar cells, type 9 was confirmed unequivocally, while types 2, 3a, 3b, 4, 5, 7, 8 and the rod bipolar cell were devoid of this enzyme. These results establish specific bipolar cell types as NO sources in the inner retina, and support the involvement of NO signaling in physiological and pathological processes in the inner retina.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Agurto
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso (CINV), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - A H Vielma
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso (CINV), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - B Cadiz
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso (CINV), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile; Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - E Couve
- Instituto de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - O Schmachtenberg
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso (CINV), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile.
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Abd El-Hay SS, Colyer CL. Development of High-Throughput Method for Measurement of Vascular Nitric Oxide Generation in Microplate Reader. Molecules 2017; 22:E127. [PMID: 28098791 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22010127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Despite the importance of nitric oxide (NO) in vascular physiology and pathology, a high-throughput method for the quantification of its vascular generation is lacking. Objective: By using the fluorescent probe 4-amino-5-methylamino-2′,7′-difluorofluorescein (DAF-FM), we have optimized a simple method for the determination of the generation of endothelial nitric oxide in a microplate format. Methods: A nitric oxide donor was used (3-morpholinosydnonimine hydrochloride, SIN-1). Different factors affecting the method were studied, such as the effects of dye concentration, different buffers, time of reaction, gain, and number of flashes. Results: Beer’s law was linear over a nanomolar range (1–10 nM) of SIN-1 with wavelengths of maximum excitation and emission at 495 and 525 nm; the limit of detection reached 0.897 nM. Under the optimized conditions, the generation of rat aortic endothelial NO was measured by incubating DAF-FM with serial concentrations (10–1000 µM) of acetylcholine (ACh) for 3 min. To confirm specificity, Nω-Nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME)—the standard inhibitor of endothelial NO synthase—was found to inhibit the ACh-stimulated generation of NO. In addition, vessels pre-exposed for 1 h to 400 µM of the endothelial damaging agent methyl glyoxal showed inhibited NO generation when compared to the control stimulated by ACh. Conclusions: The capability of the method to measure micro-volume samples makes it convenient for the simultaneous handling of a very large number of samples. Additionally, it allows samples to be run simultaneously with their replicates to ensure identical experimental conditions, thus minimizing the effect of biological variability.
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Tong L, Yu KN, Bao L, Wu W, Wang H, Han W. Low concentration of exogenous carbon monoxide protects mammalian cells against proliferation induced by radiation-induced bystander effect. Mutat Res 2014; 759:9-15. [PMID: 24333162 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Revised: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Radiation-induced bystander effect (RIBE) has been proposed to have tight relationship with the irradiation-caused secondary cancers beyond the irradiation-treated area after radiotherapy. Our previous studies demonstrated a protective effect of low concentration carbon monoxide (CO) on the genotoxicity of RIBE after α-particle irradiation. In the present work, a significant inhibitory effect of low-dose exogenous CO, generated by tricarbonyldichlororuthenium (II) dimer [CO-releasing molecule (CORM-2)], on both RIBE-induced proliferation and chromosome aberration was observed. Further studies on the mechanism revealed that the transforming growth factor β1/nitric oxide (NO) signaling pathway, which mediated RIBE signaling transduction, could be modulated by CO involved in the protective effects. Considering the potential of exogenous CO in clinical applications and its protective effect on RIBE, the present work aims to provide a foundation for potential application of CO in radiotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Tong
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - K N Yu
- Department of Physics and Materials Science, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong; Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Lingzhi Bao
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenqing Wu
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongzhi Wang
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Han
- Center of Medical Physics and Technology, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, People's Republic of China.
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8
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da Silva MP, Ventura RR, Varanda WA. Hypertonicity increases NO production to modulate the firing rate of magnocellular neurons of the supraoptic nucleus of rats. Neuroscience 2013; 250:70-9. [PMID: 23850590 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.06.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2013] [Revised: 06/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Increases in plasma osmolality enhance nitric oxide (NO) levels in magnocellular neurosecretory cells (MNCs) of the supraoptic nucleus (SON) and modulate the secretion of both vasopressin (VP) and oxytocin (OT). In this paper, we describe the effects of hypertonicity on the electrical properties of MNCs by focusing on the nitrergic modulation of their activity in this condition. Membrane potentials were measured using the patch clamp technique, in the presence of both glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission blockers, in coronal brain slices of male Wistar rats. The recordings were first made under a control condition (295 mosm/kg H2O), then in the presence of a hypertonic stimulus (330 mosm/kg H2O) and, finally, with a hypertonic stimulus plus 500 μM L-Arginine or 100 μM N-nitro-L-Arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (L-NAME). Hypertonicity per se increased the firing frequency of the neurons. L-Arginine prevented the increase in fire frequency induced by hypertonic stimulus, and L-NAME (inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase) induced an additional increase in frequency when applied together with the hypertonic solution. Moreover, L-Arginine hyperpolarizes the resting potential and decreases the peak value of the after-hyperpolarization; both effects were blocked by L-NAME and hypertonicity and/or L-NAME reduced the time constant of the rising phase of the after-depolarization. These results demonstrate that an intrinsic nitrergic system is part of the mechanisms controlling the excitability of MNCs of the SON when the internal fluid homeostasis is disturbed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P da Silva
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Avenida Bandeirantes, 3900, 14049-900 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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D’Alessandro S, Posocco B, Costa A, Zahariou G, Schiavo FL, Carbonera D, Zottini M. Limits in the use of cPTIO as nitric oxide scavenger and EPR probe in plant cells and seedlings. Front Plant Sci 2013; 4:340. [PMID: 24009621 PMCID: PMC3756283 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade the importance of nitric oxide (NO) in plant signaling has emerged. Despite its recognized biological role, the sensitivity and effectiveness of the methods used for measuring NO concentration in plants are still under discussion. Among these, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) is a well-accepted technique to detect NO. In the present work we report the constraints of using 2-4-carboxyphenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethylimidazoline-1-oxyl-3-oxide (cPTIO) in biological samples as spin trap for quantitative measurement of NO. EPR analyses on Arabidopsis cell cultures and seedlings show that cPTIO(NNO) is degraded in a matter of few minutes while the (INO) compound, produced by cPTIO and NO reaction, has not been detected. Limitations of using this spin trap in plant systems for quantitative measurements of NO are discussed. As NO scavenger, cPTIO is widely used in combination with 4-amino-5-methylamino-2('),7(')-difluorofluorescein (DAF-FM) fluorescent dye in plant research. However, the dependence of DAF-FM fluorescence on cPTIO and NO concentrations is not clearly defined so that the range of concentrations should be tightly selected. In this context, a systematic study on cPTIO NO scavenging properties has been performed, as it was still lacking for plant system applications. The results of this systematic analysis are discussed in terms of reliability of the use of cPTIO in the quantitative determination and scavenging of NO in plants and plant cultured cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bianca Posocco
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Alex Costa
- Department of Biology, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
- Department of Biosciences, University of MilanMilano, Italy
| | - Georgia Zahariou
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
| | | | - Donatella Carbonera
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
- *Correspondence: Michela Zottini, Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy e-mail: ; Donatella Carbonera, Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy e-mail:
| | - Michela Zottini
- Department of Biology, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
- *Correspondence: Michela Zottini, Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy e-mail: ; Donatella Carbonera, Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy e-mail:
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Thompson SEM, Taylor AR, Brownlee C, Callow ME, Callow JA. THE ROLE OF NITRIC OXIDE IN DIATOM ADHESION IN RELATION TO SUBSTRATUM PROPERTIES(1). J Phycol 2008; 44:967-976. [PMID: 27041615 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2008.00531.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Adhesion of raphid diatoms to surfaces, mediated by the secretion of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), is an important strategy for growth and survival. Diatom biofilms are also important in the context of biofouling. Diatoms exhibit selectivity in adhering to surfaces, but little is understood about how they perceive the properties of a substratum and translate that perception into altered adhesion properties. In this study, we demonstrate that Seminavis robusta Danielidis et D. G. Mann, like many other pennate diatoms, adheres more strongly to hydrophobic surfaces (such as silicone elastomer foul-release coatings) than to hydrophilic surfaces. To explore the cellular mechanisms that may underlie this selectivity, we tested the hypothesis that diatoms may perceive a hydrophilic surface as unconducive to adhesion through a form of stress response involving nitric oxide (NO) production. Single-cell imaging with the fluorescent indicator DAF-FM DA (4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate), revealed NO levels that were 4-fold higher in cells adhered to a hydrophilic surface (acid-washed glass) compared with a hydrophobic surface (polydimethylsiloxane elastomer, PDMSE). Elevated levels of NO caused by the addition of the NO donor S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) did not affect growth, but cells showed reduced adhesion strength to both glass and PDMSE. Addition of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-monomethyl-l-arginine (NMMA) caused a small but significant increase in adhesion strength. Overall, the results suggest that NO acts as a signal of the wettability properties of substrata for Seminavis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie E M Thompson
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKMarine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKSchool of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Alison R Taylor
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKMarine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKSchool of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Colin Brownlee
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKMarine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKSchool of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Maureen E Callow
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKMarine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKSchool of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - James A Callow
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKMarine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth PL1 2PB, UKSchool of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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