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Luo Q, Shen Y, Zhai G, Chen L, Ou F, Yi L, Yang D, Pan H, Shi F. Role of covalent modification by hepatic aldehydes in dictamnine-induced liver injury. Toxicol Lett 2024; 392:12-21. [PMID: 38128889 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2023.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Dictamnine is a representative furan-containing hepatotoxic compound. Administration of dictamnine caused acute liver injury in mice and the metabolic activation of furan to reactive epoxy intermediate was responsible for the hepatotoxicity. This study aimed to characterize the protein adduction by endogenous hepatic aldehydes and investigate its role in dictamnine-induced hepatotoxicity. In the liver sample of dictamnine-treated mice, the protein adduction by five aldehydes was characterized as lysine residue-aldehyde adducts using high-resolution UPLC-Q/Orbitrap MS after exhaustive proteolytic digestion. The levels of protein adduct were increased at 2-3 h after the treatment with dictamnine. The formation of protein adduction increased with increasing doses of dictamnine. Inhibition of the bioactivation by CYP3A inhibitor ketoconazole prevented the protein adduction. Treatment with 2,3-dihydro-dictamnine, an analog of dictamnine that was unable to form the epoxy intermediate, did not lead to an increase in protein adduction. Application of aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 activator ALDA-1 or nucleophilic trapping reagent N-acetyl-L-lysine significantly reduced the protein adduction and attenuated dictamnine-induced liver injury without affecting the bioactivation. In conclusion, the metabolic activation of the furan ring of dictamnine resulted in the protein adduction by multiple hepatic aldehydes and the protein modification played a crucial role in dictamnine-induced liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Luo
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Yang Shen
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Guohong Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Furong Ou
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Luxi Yi
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China; Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Danli Yang
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China
| | - Hong Pan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China.
| | - Fuguo Shi
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education & Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563003, China.
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Yuan M, Liang X, Cao D, Wu H, Xiao S, Liang H, Li H, Huang Y, Wei H, Peng W, Fu X. Dictamnine suppresses the development of pear ring rot induced by Botryosphaeria dothidea infection by disrupting the chitin biosynthesis. Pestic Biochem Physiol 2023; 195:105534. [PMID: 37666587 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Ring rot induced by Botryosphaeria dothidea is a major cause of growth and postharvest losses in various fruits. There is an urgent need to develop green fungicides due to pesticide resistance and environmental pressure. Here, we demonstrated the efficacy of dictamnine (DIC, 4-methoxyfuro [2,3-β] quinoline, purity 98%), a compound isolated from the stems and leaves of Clausena lansium, in effectively suppressing pear ring rot by inhibiting the mycelial growth of B. dothidea. The median effective concentration of DIC was 15.48 μg/mL. Application of DIC to B. dothidea resulted in structural disruption of the cell wall and plasma membrane, leading to mycelial deformation, breakage, and cell death. Transcriptome analysis revealed significant inhibition of the synthetic pathways for fungal cell wall and membrane components by DIC. Particularly, the expression of chitin synthase, a key enzyme of chitin synthesis, was prominently down-regulated. Moreover, the chitin content in DIC-treated B. dothidea mycelia exhibited a substantial dose-dependent reduction. Based on these results, it is promising to develop DIC as an antifungal pesticide for controlling ring rot disease in pear fruits. Our study provides new insights into the underlying mechanism through which DIC inhibits the mycelial growth of B. dothidea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minxuan Yuan
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Xiaogui Liang
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Education/Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Duantao Cao
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Hongliang Wu
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Suling Xiao
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Hui Liang
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Hang Li
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Yingjin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Education/Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China; Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Tuberous Plant Biology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Hongyi Wei
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China; Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding, Ministry of Education/Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China
| | - Wenwen Peng
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China; Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Tuberous Plant Biology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China.
| | - Xiaoxiang Fu
- The Laboratory for Phytochemistry and Botanical Pesticides, College of Agriculture, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China; Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Tuberous Plant Biology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China.
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Yang N, Shao H, Deng J, Yang Y, Tang Z, Wu G, Liu Y. Dictamnine ameliorates chronic itch in DNFB-induced atopic dermatitis mice via inhibiting MrgprA3. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 208:115368. [PMID: 36493846 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2022.115368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Chronic itch is the most prominent feature of atopic dermatitis (AD), and antihistamine treatment is often less effective in reducing clinical pruritus severity in AD. Multiple studies have shown that histamine-independent itch pathway is thought to predominate in AD-induced chronic itch. Mas-related G-protein-coupled receptor (Mrgpr) A3+ sensory neurons have been identified as one of the major itch-sensing neuron populations, and transient receptor potential (TRP) channel A1 is the key downstream of MrgprA3-mediated histamine-independent itch. MrgprA3-TRPA1 signal pathway is necessary for the development of chronic itch and may be the potentially promising target of chronic itch in AD. Dictamnine is one of the main quinoline alkaloid components of Cortex Dictamni (a traditional Chinese medicine widely used in clinical treatment of skin diseases). However, the anti-inflammatory and anti-pruritic effect of dictamnine on AD have not been reported. In this study, we used the 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB)-induced AD mouse model to observe the scratching behavior, inflammatory manifestations, and to detect the expression of MrgprA3 and TRPA1 in skin and DRG. The data demonstrated that dictamnine effectively inhibited AD-induced chronic itch, inflammation symptoms, epidermal thickening, inflammatory cell infiltration, and downregulated the expression of MrgprA3 and TRPA1. Furthermore, dictamnine restrained the excitability of MrgprA3+ and TRPA1+ neurons. Molecular docking also indicated that dictamnine has better binding affinity with MrgprA3. These results suggest that dictamnine may inhibit chronic itch caused by AD through the MrgprA3-TRPA1 mediated histamine-independent itch pathway, and may have a potential utility in AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niuniu Yang
- Department of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Medical College, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; The Key Laboratory of Syndrome Differentiation and Treatment of Gastric Cancer of the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Prevention and Treatment of Senile Diseases, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China.
| | - Haifeng Shao
- Department of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Medical College, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; The Key Laboratory of Syndrome Differentiation and Treatment of Gastric Cancer of the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Prevention and Treatment of Senile Diseases, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Jialin Deng
- Department of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Medical College, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; The Key Laboratory of Syndrome Differentiation and Treatment of Gastric Cancer of the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Prevention and Treatment of Senile Diseases, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
| | - Yan Yang
- School of Medicine and Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China; Key Laboratory for Chinese Medicine of Prevention and Treatment in Neurological Diseases, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Zongxiang Tang
- School of Medicine and Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China; Key Laboratory for Chinese Medicine of Prevention and Treatment in Neurological Diseases, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Guanyi Wu
- College of Basic Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530299, China
| | - Yanqing Liu
- Department of Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Medical College, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; The Key Laboratory of Syndrome Differentiation and Treatment of Gastric Cancer of the State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine for Prevention and Treatment of Senile Diseases, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225002, China
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Yu J, Zhang L, Peng J, Ward R, Hao P, Wang J, Zhang N, Yang Y, Guo X, Xiang C, An S, Xu TR. Dictamnine, a novel c-Met inhibitor, suppresses the proliferation of lung cancer cells by downregulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK signaling pathways. Biochem Pharmacol 2022; 195:114864. [PMID: 34861243 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2021.114864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Dictamnine (Dic), a naturally occurring small-molecule furoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz., is reported to display anticancer properties. However, little is known about the direct target proteins and anticancer mechanisms of Dic. In the current study, Dic was found to suppress the growth of lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo, and to attenuate the activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways by inhibiting the phosphorylation and activation of receptor tyrosine kinase c-Met. Moreover, the binding of Dic to c-Met was confirmed by using cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) and drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) assay. Among all cancer cell lines tested, Dic inhibited the proliferation of c-Met-dependent EBC-1 cells with the greatest potency (IC50 = 2.811 μM). Notably, Dic was shown to synergistically improve the chemo-sensitivity of epidermal growth factor receptor-tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI)-resistant lung cancer cells to gefitinib and osimertinib. These results suggest that Dic is a c-Met inhibitor that can serve as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of lung cancer, especially against EGFR TKI-resistant and c-Met-dependent lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaojiao Yu
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Lijing Zhang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Jun Peng
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, the First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, Kunming 650032, China; The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Richard Ward
- Centre for Translational Pharmacology, Institute of Molecular Cell and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Peiqi Hao
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Jiwei Wang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Na Zhang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Xiaoxi Guo
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Cheng Xiang
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Su An
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China; State Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China.
| | - Tian-Rui Xu
- Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China; State Key Laboratory of Primate Biomedical Research, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650500, China.
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Lin Q, Guan H, Ma C, Chen L, Cao L, Liu H, Cheng X, Wang C. Biotransformation patterns of dictamnine in vitro/in vivo and its relative molecular mechanism of dictamnine-induced acute liver injury in mice. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 85:103628. [PMID: 33652109 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2021.103628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Dictamnine (DIC), a typical furan-quinoline alkaloid, has a wide range of pharmacological and toxicological effects, such as anti-bacterial, antifungal, anti-cancer, and hepatoxicity. But the molecular mechanism of DIC-induced hepatoxicity in mice remains unclear. This study aimed to clarify the biotransformation patterns of DIC in vitro/in vivo and the relative molecular mechanism of DIC-induced hepatoxicity in mice. All metabolites of DIC were identified by comparing the blank and drug-containing urine, feces, plasma, and liver samples. The structure of epoxide intermediate derived from DIC was confirmed by trapping assay. Oxidative stress injury and inflammation have been confirmed to be involved in the toxicological process of DIC-induced hepatoxicity in mice by detecting the relative biochemical indexes. The results will help to develop a deeper understanding about the biotransformation patterns of DIC, structure of the epoxide intermediate, and the molecular mechanism of DIC-induced hepatoxicity in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiyan Lin
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Huida Guan
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Chao Ma
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Liangni Chen
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Lanlan Cao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Hanze Liu
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Xuemei Cheng
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Changhong Wang
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The MOE Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Shanghai R&D Centre for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, 1200 Cailun Road, Shanghai, 201203, China.
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Wang P, Zhao Y, Zhu Y, Sun J, Yerke A, Sang S, Yu Z. Metabolism of dictamnine in liver microsomes from mouse, rat, dog, monkey, and human. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2015; 119:166-74. [PMID: 26683990 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Dictamnine, a furoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the root bark of Dictamnus dasycarpus Turcz. (Rutaceae), is reported to have a wide range of pharmacological activities. In this study, the in vitro metabolic profiles of dictamnine in mouse, rat, dog, monkey, and human liver microsomes were investigated and compared. Dictamnine was incubated with liver microsomes in the presence of an NADPH-regenerating system, resulting in the formation of eight metabolites (M1-M8). M1 is an O-desmethyl metabolite. M5 and M6 are formed by a mono-hydroxylation of the benzene ring of dictamnine. M8 was tentatively identified as an N-oxide metabolite. The predominant metabolic pathway of dictamnine occurs through the epoxidation of the 2,3-olefinic to yield a 2,3-epoxide metabolite (M7), followed by the ring of the epoxide opening to give M4. Likewise, cleavage of the furan ring forms M2 and M3. Slight differences were observed in the in vitro metabolic profiles of dictamnine among the five species tested. A chemical inhibition study with a broad and five specific CYP450 inhibitors revealed that most of the dictamnine metabolites in liver microsomes are mediated by CYP450, with CYP3A4 as the predominant enzyme involved in the formation of M7, the major metabolite. These findings provide vital information to better understand the metabolic processes of dictamnine among various species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China; Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Yunli Zhao
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yingdong Zhu
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Jianbo Sun
- Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Aaron Yerke
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Shengmin Sang
- Center for Excellence in Post-Harvest Technologies, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, North Carolina Research Campus, 500 Laureate Way, Kannapolis, NC 28081, USA
| | - Zhiguo Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China.
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