1
|
Suetsugu K, Nakamura Y, Nakano T, Tagane S. Relictithismia kimotsukiensis, a new genus and species of Thismiaceae from southern Japan with discussions on its phylogenetic relationship. J Plant Res 2024:10.1007/s10265-024-01532-5. [PMID: 38421521 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-024-01532-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
The family Thismiaceae, known as "fairy lanterns" for their urn- or bell-shaped flowers with basally fused tepals, consists of non-photosynthetic flowering monocots mainly in tropical regions, extending into subtropical and temperate areas. Here, we propose a new mycoheterotrophic genus, Relictithismia Suetsugu & Tagane (Thismiaceae), with its monotypic species Relictithismia kimotsukiensis Suetsugu, Yas.Nakam. & Tagane from Kimotsuki Mountains in the Osumi Peninsula, Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu Island, southern Japan. Relictithismia resembles Haplothismia Airy Shaw in having a cluster of tuberous roots, a feature previously observed only in this genus within the family Thismiaceae. However, it differs in having solitary flowers (vs. 2-6-flowered pseudo-raceme in Haplothismia), anther thecae largely separated (vs. connate), and the presence of an annulus (vs. absent). Additionally, Relictithismia differs from the geographically overlapping genus Thismia Griff. in its stamen structure and the position of the annulus. In Relictithismia, the stamens lack connectives, and its free filaments arise from the annulus located inside the perianth mouth, while in Thismia, the stamens typically have connate connectives, forming a staminal tube pendulous from the annulus located at the mouth of the floral tube. Our morphological and phylogenetic data indicated that R. kimotsukiensis holds an early-diverging position within the family, situated outside the Old World Thismia clade. This paper offers an extensive description and color photographs of R. kimotsukiensis, complemented by notes on its phylogenetic relationship and evolutionary history.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Suetsugu
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Kobe, Hyogo, 657-8501, Japan.
- Institute for Advanced Research, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai, Nada-Ku, Kobe, Hyogo, 657-8501, Japan.
| | | | - Takafumi Nakano
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Shuichiro Tagane
- Kagoshima University Museum, Kagoshima University, 1-21-30, Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0065, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Vislobokov NA, Nuraliev MS. Chasmogamy and entomophily in Burmannia disticha (Burmanniaceae). Front Plant Sci 2023; 14:1237665. [PMID: 37680363 PMCID: PMC10481340 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1237665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Burmannia shows a set of floral traits that suggest elaborate mechanisms of animal-mediated pollen transfer. These include flower coloration, septal nectaries and a long and narrow floral chamber. The stamens are synorganized with the common style restricting the entrance to the floral chamber, sometimes forming a gynostegium. Contrary to this apparent zoophilous floral syndrome, several species of Burmannia were reported to perform self-pollination via cleistogamy. Understanding of reproductive systems in Burmannia is complicated by scarcity of available results of direct observations on pollination process. Here we present data on pollination biology of B. disticha obtained during field investigations in Vietnam followed by laboratory analyses of ecologically important floral traits and the captured flower visitors. We found that the anthetic perianth is open, i.e. the flower is chasmogamous. The flowers are visited by various Diptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. Of them, the bumblebees (Bombus burmensis), a bee (Coelioxys sp.) and some lepidopterans were revealed to carry pollen of B. disticha. Based on the amount of carried pollen, insect behavior during the visits and general knowledge on biology of these insect taxa, we concluded that the bumblebees act as the principal pollinators of B. disticha, whereas the lepidopterans are considered as its possible pollinators. We compared the lengths of proboscises of the captured insects to the depth of the floral chamber, and found that only the bumblebees and lepidopterans should be able to reach the nectar. Finally, we estimated the pollen-ovule ratio of B. disticha as 6.84, which is comparable to the ratio known in autogamous angiosperms. Based on its flower organization and pollination mechanism, we consider B. disticha an entomophilous and predominantly xenogamous species. Its gynostegium is likely an adaptation for pollen transfer by insects with long proboscises. At the same time, earlier investigations together with pollen-ovule ratio indicate that B. disticha possesses a labile pollination strategy, and autogamy sometimes occurs. Since Burmannia is one of the few angiosperm genera that comprise both mycoheterotrophic (achlorophyllous) and autotrophic (green) species, our study provides important evidence for reconstructions of ecological and morphological evolutionary pathways in relation to the mode of organic nutrition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay A. Vislobokov
- Department of Higher Plants, Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Joint Russian-Vietnamese Tropical Scientific and Technological Center, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Maxim S. Nuraliev
- Department of Higher Plants, Faculty of Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
- Joint Russian-Vietnamese Tropical Scientific and Technological Center, Hanoi, Vietnam
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Garrett N, Viruel J, Klimpert N, Soto Gomez M, Lam VKY, Merckx VSFT, Graham SW. Plastid phylogenomics and molecular evolution of Thismiaceae ( Dioscoreales). Am J Bot 2023; 110:e16141. [PMID: 36779918 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.16141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Species in Thismiaceae can no longer photosynthesize and instead obtain carbon from soil fungi. Here we infer Thismiaceae phylogeny using plastid genome data and characterize the molecular evolution of this genome. METHODS We assembled five Thismiaceae plastid genomes from genome skimming data, adding to previously published data for phylogenomic inference. We investigated plastid-genome structural changes, considering locally colinear blocks (LCBs). We also characterized possible shifts in selection pressure in retained genes by considering changes in the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous changes (ω). RESULTS Thismiaceae experienced two major pulses of gene loss around the early diversification of the family, with subsequent scattered gene losses across descendent lineages. In addition to massive size reduction, Thismiaceae plastid genomes experienced occasional inversions, and there were likely two independent losses of the plastid inverted repeat (IR) region. Retained plastid genes remain under generally strong purifying selection (ω << 1), with significant and sporadic weakening or strengthening in several instances. The bifunctional trnE-UUC gene of Thismia huangii may retain a secondary role in heme biosynthesis, despite a probable loss of functionality in protein translation. Several cis-spliced group IIA introns have been retained, despite the loss of the plastid intron maturase, matK. CONCLUSIONS We infer that most gene losses in Thismiaceae occurred early and rapidly, following the initial loss of photosynthesis in its stem lineage. As a species-rich, fully mycoheterotrophic lineage, Thismiaceae provide a model system for uncovering the unique and divergent ways in which plastid genomes evolve in heterotrophic plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Garrett
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Juan Viruel
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3DS, UK
| | - Nathaniel Klimpert
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Vivienne K Y Lam
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Vincent S F T Merckx
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Sciencepark 904, 1098, XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sean W Graham
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Lin Q, Braukmann TWA, Soto Gomez M, Mayer JLS, Pinheiro F, Merckx VSFT, Stefanović S, Graham SW. Mitochondrial genomic data are effective at placing mycoheterotrophic lineages in plant phylogeny. New Phytol 2022; 236:1908-1921. [PMID: 35731179 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Fully mycoheterotrophic plants can be difficult to place in plant phylogeny due to elevated substitution rates associated with photosynthesis loss. This potentially limits the effectiveness of downstream analyses of mycoheterotrophy that depend on accurate phylogenetic inference. Although mitochondrial genomic data sets are rarely used in plant phylogenetics, theory predicts that they should be resilient to long-branch artefacts, thanks to their generally slow evolution, coupled with limited rate elevation in heterotrophs. We examined the utility of mitochondrial genomes for resolving contentious higher-order placements of mycoheterotrophic lineages in two test cases: monocots (focusing on Dioscoreales) and Ericaceae. We find Thismiaceae to be distantly related to Burmanniaceae in the monocot order Dioscoreales, conflicting with current classification schemes based on few gene data sets. We confirm that the unusual Afrothismia is related to Taccaceae-Thismiaceae, with a corresponding independent loss of photosynthesis. In Ericaceae we recovered the first well supported relationships among its five major lineages: mycoheterotrophic Ericaceae are not monophyletic, as pyroloids are inferred to be sister to core Ericaceae, and monotropoids to arbutoids. Genes recovered from mitochondrial genomes collectively resolved previously ambiguous mycoheterotroph higher-order relationships. We propose that mitochondrial genomic data should be considered in standardised gene panels for inferring overall plant phylogeny.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qianshi Lin
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 2Z9, Canada
| | - Thomas W A Braukmann
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 2Z9, Canada
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Marybel Soto Gomez
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AB, UK
| | - Juliana Lischka Sampaio Mayer
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 255 Rua Monteiro Lobato, Campinas, São Paulo, 13.083-862, Brazil
| | - Fábio Pinheiro
- Departamento de Biologia Vegetal, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, 255 Rua Monteiro Lobato, Campinas, São Paulo, 13.083-862, Brazil
| | - Vincent S F T Merckx
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Vondellaan 55, 2332 AA, Leiden, the Netherlands
- Department of Evolutionary and Population Biology, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 94240, 1090 GE, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Saša Stefanović
- Department of Biology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 2Z9, Canada
| | - Sean W Graham
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jibrin MO, Liu Q, Huang Y, Urbina H, Gazis R, Zhang S. Lasiodiplodia iraniensis, a New Causal Agent of Tuber Rot on Yam ( Dioscorea Species) Imported into the United States and Implications for Quarantine Decisions. Plant Dis 2022; 106:3027-3032. [PMID: 35668059 DOI: 10.1094/pdis-11-21-2421-sc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
One negative consequence of international trade of agricultural commodities is the inadvertent global spread of crop diseases. Yam (Dioscorea spp.) is a staple food crop in many countries and is traded globally. Most of the commercially traded yams in the United States are imported. In late 2020, samples of yam tubers from a commercial facility were submitted to the plant diagnostic clinic at the UF/IFAS Tropical Research and Education Center in Homestead, Florida. Samples showed rotten symptoms and were drawn from lots that were marked to be destroyed because the source of the rotting symptoms was unknown. Preliminary isolation showed that a fungus was consistently associated with the symptoms and was confirmed in the subsequent pathogenicity test as the causal agent. The fungus grew profusely on potato dextrose agar (PDA) with highly melanized hyphae. Matured conidia showed longitudinal striations. Based on its growth pattern and morphology, it was suspected that this fungus may be in the genus Lasiodiplodia. DNA-based identification using partial sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), β-tubulin (TUB2), 28S rDNA (LSU), and elongation factor alpha (EF1-α) genes confirmed the identity of the isolates as Lasiodiplodia iraniensis Abdollahz., Zare & A.J.L. Phillips (synonym: L. iranensis). This is the first report of L. iraniensis affecting yam and has implications for international trade. This finding will provide an important foundation for making quarantine decisions to prevent spread of this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Ojonuba Jibrin
- Tropical Research and Education Center, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, IFAS, Homestead, FL 33031
| | - Qingchun Liu
- Tropical Research and Education Center, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, IFAS, Homestead, FL 33031
| | - Yi Huang
- Tropical Research and Education Center, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, IFAS, Homestead, FL 33031
| | - Hector Urbina
- Section of Plant Pathology, Division of Plant Industry, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Gainesville, FL 32608
| | - Romina Gazis
- Tropical Research and Education Center, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, IFAS, Homestead, FL 33031
| | - Shouan Zhang
- Tropical Research and Education Center, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, IFAS, Homestead, FL 33031
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tobe H, Huang YL, Kadokawa T, Tamura MN. Floral structure and development in Nartheciaceae ( Dioscoreales), with special reference to ovary position and septal nectaries. J Plant Res 2018; 131:411-428. [PMID: 29569170 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-018-1026-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We present a comparative study of the floral structure and development of Nartheciaceae, a small dioscorealean family consisting of five genera (Aletris, Lophiola, Metanarthecium, Narthecium, and Nietneria). A noticeable diversity existed in nine floral characters. Analyses of their respective character states in the light of a phylogenetic context revealed that the flowers of Nartheciaceae, whose plesiomorphies occur in Aletris and Metanarthecium, have evolved toward in all or part of Lophiola, Narthecium, and Nietneria: (1) loss of a perianth tube; (2) stamen insertion at the perianth base; (3) congenital carpel fusion; (4) loss of the septal nectaries; (5) unilocular style; (6) unfused lateral carpellary margins in the style; (7) flower with the median outer tepal on the abaxial side; (8) flower with moniliform hairs; and (9) flower with weak monosymmetry. We further found that, as the flowers developed, the ovary shifted its position from inferior to superior. As a whole, their structure changes suggest that the Nartheciaceae flowers have evolved in close association with pollination and seed dispersal. By considering inferior ovaries and the presence of septal nectaries as plesiomorphies of Nartheciaceae, we discussed evolution of the ovary position and septal nectaries in all the monocots.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Tobe
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan.
| | - Yu-Ling Huang
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
- National Museum of Natural Science, Guancian Rd., Taichung, 404, Taiwan
| | - Tomoki Kadokawa
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Minoru N Tamura
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Maurin O, Muasya AM, Catalan P, Shongwe EZ, Viruel J, Wilkin P, van der Bank M. Diversification into novel habitats in the Africa clade of Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae): erect habit and elephant's foot tubers. BMC Evol Biol 2016; 16:238. [PMID: 27821045 PMCID: PMC5100304 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-016-0812-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dioscorea is a widely distributed and highly diversified genus in tropical regions where it is represented by ten main clades, one of which diversified exclusively in Africa. In southern Africa it is characterised by a distinct group of species with a pachycaul or "elephant's foot" structure that is partially to fully exposed above the substrate. In contrast to African representatives of the genus from other clades, occurring mainly in forest or woodland, the pachycaul taxa and their southern African relatives occur in diverse habitats ranging from woodland to open vegetation. Here we investigate patterns of diversification in the African clade, time of transition from forest to more open habitat, and morphological traits associated with each habitat and evaluate if such transitions have led to modification of reproductive organs and mode of dispersal. RESULTS The Africa clade originated in the Oligocene and comprises four subclades. The Dioscorea buchananii subclade (southeastern tropical Africa and South Africa) is sister to the East African subclade, which is respectively sister to the recently evolved sister South African (e. g., Cape and Pachycaul) subclades. The Cape and Pachycaul subclades diversified in the east of the Cape Peninsula in the mid Miocene, in an area with complex geomorphology and climate, where the fynbos, thicket, succulent karoo and forest biomes meet. CONCLUSIONS Diversification out of forest is associated with major shifts in morphology of the perennial tuber (specifically an increase in size and orientation which presumably led them to become pachycaul) and rotation of stem (from twining to non-twining). The iconic elephant's foot morphology, observed in grasslands and thicket biomes, where its corky bark may offer protection against fire and herbivory, evolved since mid Miocene. A shift in pollination trait is observed within the forest, but entry into open habitat does not show association with reproductive morphology, except in the seed wing, which has switched from winged all round the seed margin to just at the base or at the apex of it, or has been even replaced by an elaiosome.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Maurin
- African Centre for DNA Barcoding, Department of Botany & Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, Gauteng, 2006, South Africa
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AE, UK
| | - A Muthama Muasya
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Western Cape, 7701, South Africa.
| | - Pilar Catalan
- Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias y del Medio Natural, Escuela Politécnica Superior de Huesca, Universidad de Zaragoza, Ctra. Cuarte km 1, Huesca, 22071, Spain
- Institute of Biology, Tomsk State University, 36 Lenin Avenue, Tomsk, 634050, Russia
| | - Eugene Z Shongwe
- African Centre for DNA Barcoding, Department of Botany & Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, Gauteng, 2006, South Africa
| | - Juan Viruel
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Av. Reina Mercedes s/n, Sevilla, 41012, Spain
- Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d'Ecologie marine et continentale (IMBE), Aix Marseille Université, Chemin de la Batterie des Lions, Marseille, 13007, France
| | - Paul Wilkin
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AE, UK
| | - Michelle van der Bank
- African Centre for DNA Barcoding, Department of Botany & Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park, Johannesburg, Gauteng, 2006, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Lam VKY, Merckx VSFT, Graham SW. A few-gene plastid phylogenetic framework for mycoheterotrophic monocots. Am J Bot 2016; 103:692-708. [PMID: 27056932 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1500412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY Few-gene studies with broad taxon sampling have provided major insights into phylogeny and underpin plant classification. However, they have typically excluded heterotrophic plants because of loss, pseudogenization, or rapid evolution of plastid genes. Here we performed a phylogenetic survey of three commonly retained plastid genes to assess their utility in placing mycoheterotrophs. METHODS We surveyed accD, clpP, and matK for 34 taxa from seven monocot families that include full mycoheterotrophs and a broad sampling of photosynthetic taxa. After screening for weak contaminants, we conducted phylogenetic analyses and characterized among-lineage rate variation. KEY RESULTS Likelihood analyses strongly supported local placements of fully mycoheterotrophic taxa for Corsiaceae, Iridaceae, Orchidaceae, and Petrosaviaceae, in positions consistent with other studies. Depression of likelihood bootstrap support values near mycoheterotrophic clades was alleviated when each mycoheterotrophic family was considered separately. Triuridaceae (Sciaphila) monophyly was recovered in a partitioned likelihood analysis, and the family then placed as sister to Cyclanthaceae-Pandanaceae. Burmanniaceae placed in Dioscoreales with weak to strong support depending on analysis details, and we inferred a plastid-based phylogeny for the family. Thismiaceae species may retain a plastid genome, based on accD retention. The inferred position of Thismiaceae is unstable, but was close to Taccaceae (Dioscoreales) in some analyses. CONCLUSIONS Long branches/elevated substitution rates, missing genes, and occasional contaminants are challenges for plastid-based phylogenetic inference with full mycoheterotrophs. However, most mycoheterotrophs can be readily integrated into the broad picture of plant phylogeny using several plastid genes and broad taxonomic sampling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vivienne K Y Lam
- Department of Botany, 6270 University Boulevard, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada UBC Botanical Garden & Centre for Plant Research, 6804 Marine Drive SW, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | | | - Sean W Graham
- Department of Botany, 6270 University Boulevard, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada UBC Botanical Garden & Centre for Plant Research, 6804 Marine Drive SW, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|